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Jilt  ASS    IMAUK    OF    GAUTAMA   UrDDHA   FBOM    CEYLON. 

He  U  mmUxl  on  llio  Muailiiuln  Sorjieiit  (sco  p.  480),  in  an  attitude  of  profound  meditation,  witli  eyea 
lialf  chwctl,  ami  five  rny»  of  ligiit  emerging  from  the  crown  of  liis  head. 


[Frontispiece. 


BUDDHISM, 

IN    ITS    CONNEXION    WITH    BRAHMANISM 
AND   HINDUISM, 


AND 


IN   ITS   CONTRAST  WITH 
CHRISTIANITY, 


SIR    MONIER    MONIER-WILLIAMS,    K.C.I.E., 

M.A.,   HON.  D.C.L.   OF  THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   OXFORD,    HON.  LL.D.   OF   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF 

CALCUTTA,    HON.    PH.D.    OF  THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   GOTTINGEN,   HON.   MEMBER   OF 

THE   ASIATIC   SOCIETIES   OF   BENGAL   AND   BOMBAY,   AND   OF   THE  ORIENTAL 

AND   PHILOSOPHICAL   SOCIETIES   OF   AMERICA,    BODEN   PROFESSOR 

OF  SANSKRIT,    AND   LATE   FELLOW   OF  BALLIOL 

COLLEGE,    OXFORD,    ETC, 


k 


NEW   YORK: 

MACMILLAN   AND   CO. 

1889. 

\All  rights  reserved. ^ 


PREFACE. 


The  '  Duff  Lectures'  for  1888  were  delivered  by  me 
at  Edinburgh  in  the  month  of  March.  In  introducing 
my  subject,  I  spoke  to  the  following  effect : — 

'  I  wish  to  express  my  deep  sense  of  the  responsibility 
which  the  writing  of  these  Lectures  has  laid  upon  me, 
and  my  earnest  desire  that  they  may,  by  their  useful- 
ness, prove  in  some  degree  worthy  of  the  great  mis- 
sionary whose  name  they  bear. 

'  Dr.  Duff  was  a  man  of  power,  who  left  his  own 
foot-print  so  deeply  impressed  on  the  soil  of  Bengal, 
that  its  traces  are  never  likely  to  be  effaced,  and  still 
serve  to  encourage  less  ardent  spirits,  who  are  striving 
to  imitate  his  example  in  the  same  field  of  labour. 

'  But  not  only  is  the  impress  of  his  vigorous  per- 
sonality still  fresh  in  Bengal.  He  has  earned  an  en- 
during reputation  throughout  India  and  the  United 
Kingdom,  as  the  prince  of  educational  missionaries. 
He  was  in  aU  that  he  undertook  an  enthusiastic  and 
indefatigable  workman,  of  whom,  if  of  any  human 
being,  it  might  be  truly  said,  that,  when  called  upon 
to  quit  the  sphere  of  his  labours,  "  he  needed  not  to  be 
ashamed."     No  one  can  have  travelled  much  in  India 


vi  PEEFACE. 

without  having  observed  how  wonderfully  the  results 
of  his  indomitable  energy  and  fervid  eloquence  in  the 
cause  of  Truth  wait  on  the  memory  of  his  work  every- 
where. Monuments  may  be  erected  and  lectureships 
founded  to  perpetuate  his  name  and  testify  to  his 
victories  over  difficulties  which  few  other  men  could 
have  overcome,  but  better  than  these  will  be  the  living 
testimony  of  successive  generations  of  Hindu  men  and 
women,  whose  growth  and  progress  in  true  enlighten- 
ment will  be  due  to  the  seed  which  he  planted,  and 
to  which  God  has  given  the  increase.' 

I  said  a  few  more  words  expressive  of  my  hope  that 
the  '  Life  of  Dr.  Duff'  ^  would  be  read  and  pondered 
by  every  student  destined  for  work  of  any  kind  in  our 
Indian  empire,  and  to  that  biography  I  refer  all  who 
are  unacquainted  with  the  particulars  of  the  labours  of 
a  man  to  whom  Scotland  has  assigned  a  place  in  the 
foremost  rank  of  her  most  eminent  Evangelists. 

I  now  proceed  to  explain  the  process  by  which  these 
Lectures  have  gradually  outgrown  the  limits  required 
by  the  Duff  Trustees. 

When  I  addressed  myself  to  the  carrying  out  of  their 
wishes — communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  W.  Pirie  Duff — 
I  had  no  intention  of  undertaking  more  than  a  concise 
account  of  a  subject  which  I  had  been  studying  for 
many  years.     I  conceived  it  possible  to  compress  into 

'  '  Life  of  Alexander  Duff,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  by  George  Smith,  C.I.E., 
LL.D.'  London:  Hodder  and  Stoughton ;  published  first  in  1879, 
and  a  popular  edition  in  1881. 


PREFACE.  vii 

six  Lectures  a  scholarly  sketch  of  what  may  be  called 
true  Buddhism, — that  is,  the  Buddhism  of  the  Pitakas 
or  Pali  texts  which  are  now  being  edited  by  the  Pali 
Text  Society,  and  some  of  which  have  been  translated 
in  the  '  Sacred  Books  of  the  East.'  It  soon,  however, 
became  apparent  to  me  that  to  write  an  account  of 
Buddhism  which  would  be  worthy  of  the  great  Indian 
missionary,  I  ought  to  exhibit  it  in  its  connexion  with 
Brahmanism  and  Hinduism  and  even  with  Jainism, 
and  in  its  contrast  with  Christianity.  Then,  as  I  pro- 
ceeded, I  began  to  feel  that  to  do  justice  to  my  subject 
I  should  be  compelled  to  enlarge  the  range  of  my  re- 
searches, so  as  to  embrace  some  of  the  later  phases  and 
modern  developments  of  Buddhism.  This  led  me  to 
undertake  a  more  careful  study  of  Koeppen's  Lamaismus 
than  I  had  before  thought  necessary.  Furthermore, 
I  felt  it  my  duty  to  study  attentively  numerous  trea- 
tises on  Northern  Buddhism,  which  I  had  before  read 
in  a  cursory  manner.  I  even  thought  it  incumbent  on 
me  to  look  a  little  into  the  Tibetan  language,  of  which 
I  was  before  wholly  ignorant. 

I  need  scarcely  explain  further  the  process  of  ex- 
pansion through  which  the  present  work  has  passed. 
A  conviction  took  possession  of  my  mind,  that  any  en- 
deavour to  give  even  an  outline  of  the  whole  subject 
of  Buddhism  in  six  Lectures,  would  be  rather  like  the 
effort  of  a  foolish  man  trying  to  paint  a  panorama  of 
London  on  a  sheet  of  note-paper.  Hence  the  expansion 
of  six  Lectures  into  eighteen,  and  it  will  be  seen  at 


viii  PREFACE. 

once  that  many  of  these  eighteen  are  far  too  long  to  have 
l)een  delivered  in  extenso.  In  point  of  fact,  by  an 
arrangement  with  the  Trustees,  only  a  certain  portion 
of  any  Lecture  was  delivered  orally.  The  present  work 
is  rather  a  treatise  on  Buddhism  printed  and  published 
in  memory  of  Dr.  Duff. 

I  need  not  encumber  the  Preface  with  a  re-statement 
of  the  reasons  which  have  made  the  elucidation  of  an 
intricate  subject  almost  hopelessly  difficult.  They  have 
been  stated  in  the  Introductory  Lecture  (pp.  13,  14). 

Moreover  the  plan  of  the  present  volume  has  been 
there  set  forth  (see  p.  17). 

I  may  possibly  be  asked  by  weary  readers  why  I 
have  ventured  to  add  another  tributary  to  the  too 
swollen  stream  of  treatises  on  Buddhism  ?  or  some  may 
employ  another  metaphor  and  inquire  why  I  have 
troubled  myself  to  toil  and  plod  over  a  path  already 
well  travelled  over  and  trodden  down  ?  My  reply  is 
that  I  think  I  can  claim  for  my  own  work  an  indi- 
viduality which  separates  it  from  that  of  others — an 
individuality  which  may  probably  commend  it  to 
thoughtful  students  of  Buddhism  as  helping  to  clear 
a  thorny  road,  and  introduce  some  little  order  and 
coherence  into  the  chaotic  confusion  of  Buddhistic 
ideas. 

At  any  rate  I  request  permission  to  draw  attention 
to  the  following  points,  which,  I  think,  may  invest  my 
researches  with  a  distinctive  character  of  their  own. 

In  the  first  place  I  have  been  able  to  avail  myself  of 


PREFACE.  IX 

the  latest  publications  of  the  Pali  Text  Society,  and  to 
consult  many  recent  works  wliicli  previous  writers  on 
Buddhism  have  not  had  at  their  command. 

Secondly,  I  have  striven  to  combine  scientific  ac- 
curacy with  a  popular  exposition  sufficiently  readable 
to  satisfy  tlie  wants  of  the  cultured  English-speaking 
world — a  world  crowded  with  intelligent  readers  who 
take  an  increasing  interest  in  Buddhism,  and  yet  know 
nothing  of  Sanskrit,  Pali,  and  Tibetan. 

Thirdly,  I  have  aimed  at  effecting  what  no  other 
English  Orientalist  has,  to  my  knowledge,  ever  ac- 
complished. I  have  endeavoured  to  deal  with  a  com- 
plex subject  as  a  whole,  and  to  present  in  one  volume  a 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  entire  range  of  Buddhism, 
from  its  earliest  origin  in  India  to  its  latest  modern 
develojDments  in  other  Asiatic  countries. 

Fourthly,  I  have  brought  to  the  study  of  Buddhism 
and  its  sacred  language  Pali,  a  life-long  preparatory 
study  of  Brahmanism  and  its  sacred  language  San- 
skrit. 

Fifthly,  I  have  on  three  occasions  travelled  through 
the  sacred  land  of  Buddhism  (p.  21),  and  have  carried  on 
my  investigations  personally  in  the  place  of  its  origin, 
as  well  as  in  Ceylon  and  on  the  borders  of  Tibet. 

Lastly,  I  have  depicted  Buddhism  from  the  stand- 
point of  a  believer  in  Christianity,  who  has  shown,  by 
his  other  works  on  Eastern  religions,  an  earnest  desire 
to  give  them  credit  for  all  the  good  they  contain. 

In  regard  to  this  last  point,  I  shall  probably  be  told 


PREFACE. 


by  some  enthusiastic  admirers  of  Buddhism,  that  my 
prepossessions  and  predilections — inherited  with  my 
Cliristianity — have,  in  spite  of  my  desire  to  be  just, 
distorted  my  view  of  a  system  with  which  I  have  no 
sympathy.  To  this  I  can  only  reply,  that  my  con- 
sciousness of  my  own  prepossessions  has  made  me  the 
more  sensitively  anxious  to  exhibit  Buddhism  under 
its  best  aspects,  as  well  as  under  its  worst.  An  atten- 
tive perusal  of  my  last  Lecture  (see  p.  537)  will,  I  hope, 
make  it  evident  that  I  have  at  least  done  everything 
in  my  power  to  dismiss  all  prejudice  from  my  mind, 
and  to  assume  and  maintain  the  attitude  of  an  im- 
partial judge.  And  to  this  end  I  have  taken  nothing 
on  trust,  or  at  second  hand.  I  have  studied  Pali,  as 
I  have  the  other  Indian  Prakrits,  on  my  own  account, 
and  independently.  I  have  not  accepted  unreservedly 
any  man's  interpretation  of  the  original  Buddhist  texts, 
and  have  endeavoured  to  verify  for  myself  all  doubtful 
statements  and  translations  which  occur  in  existing 
treatises.  Of  course  I  owe  much  to  modern  Pali  scholars, 
and  writers  on  Buddhism,  and  to  the  translators  of  the 
'  Sacred  Books  of  the  East ; '  but  I  have  frequently  felt 
compelled  to  form  an  independent  opinion  of  my  own. 

The  translations  given  in  the  '  Sacred  Books  of  the 
East' — good  as  they  generally  are — have  seemed  to 
me  occasionally  misleading.  I  may  mention  as  an 
instance  the  constant  employment  by  the  translators 
of  the  word  *  Ordination '  for  the  ceremonies  of  admis- 
sion to  the  Buddhist  monkhood  (see  pp.  76-80  of  the 


PKEFACE.  XI 

present  volume).  I  have  ventured  in  such  instances 
to  give  what  has  appeared  to  me  a  more  suitable 
equivalent  for  the  Pali.  On  the  same  principle  I  have 
avoided  all  needless  employment  of  Christian  termin- 
ology and  Bible-language  to  express  Buddhist  ideas. 

For  example,  I  have  in  most  cases  excluded  such 
words  as  '  sin,'  '  holiness,'  '  faith,'  '  trinity,'  '  priest '  from 
my  explanations  of  the  Buddhist  creed,  as  wholly  un- 
suitable. 

I  regret  that  want  of  space  has  compelled  me  to 
curtail  my  observations  on  Jainism — the  present  repre- 
sentative of  Buddhistic  doctrines  in  India  (see  p.  529.) 
I  hope  to  enter  more  fully  on  this  subject  hereafter. 

The  names  of  authors  to  whom  students  of  Bud- 
dhism are  indebted  are  given  in  my  first  Lecture  (pp. 
14,  15).  We  all  owe  much  to  Childers.  My  own 
thanks  are  specially  due  to  General  Sir  Alexander 
Cunningham,  to  Professor  E.  B.  Cowell  of  Cambridge, 
Professor  Bhys  Davids,  Dr.  Oldenberg,  Dr.  Kost, 
Dr.  Morris,  Dr.  Wenzel,  who  have  aided  me  with  their 
opinions,  whenever  I  have  thought  it  right  to  consult 
them.  Dr.  Bost,  C.I.E.,  of  the  India  Office,  is  also 
entitled  to  my  warmest  acknowledgments  for  having 
placed  at  my  disposal  various  subsidiary  works  bearing 
on  Buddhism,  some  of  which  belong  to  his  own  Library. 

My  obligations  to  Mr.  Hoey's  translation  of  Dr. 
Oldenberg's  '  Buddha,'  to  the  translations  of  the  travels 
of  the  Chinese  pilgrims  by  Professor  Legge,  Mr.  Beal, 
M.  Abel  Eemusat,  and  M.  Stanislas  Julien,  to  M.  Hue's 


XI 1  PREFACE. 

travels,  and  to  Mr.  Scott's  'Burman,'  will  be  evident,  and 
have  been  generally  acknowledged  in  my  notes.  I  am 
particularly  grateful  to  Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das,  C.I.E., 
for  the  information  contained  in  his  Keport  and  for  the 
instruction  which  I  received  from  him  personally  while 
prosecuting  my  inquiries  at  Darjiling. 

I  have  felt  compelled  to  abbreviate  nearly  all  my 
quotations,  and  therefore  occasionally  to  alter  the 
phraseology.  Hence  I  have  thought  it  right  to  mark 
them  by  a  different  type  without  inverted  commas. 

With  reo;ard  to  transliteration  I  must  refer  the  student 
to  the  rules  for  pronunciation  given  at  p.  xxxi.  They 
conform  to  the  rules  given  in  my  Sanskrit  Grammar  and 
Dictionary.  Like  Dr.  Oldenberg,  1  have  preferred  to 
substitute  Sanskrit  terminations  in  a  for  the  Pali  o.  In 
Tibetan  I  have  constantly  consulted  Jaschke,  but  have 
not  followed  his  system  of  transliteration. 

In  conclusion,  I  may  fitly  draw  attention  to  the 
engravings  of  objects,  some  of  which  were  brought  by 
myself  from  Buddhist  countries.  They  are  described 
in  the  list  of  illustrations  (see  p.  xxix),  and  will,  I  trust, 
give  value  to  the  present  volume.  It  has  seemed  to 
me  a  duty  to  make  use  of  every  available  appliance  for 
throwing  light  on  the  obscurities  of  a  difficult  subject ; 
and,  as  these  Lectures  embrace  the  whole  range  of 
Buddhism,  I  have  adopted  as  a  frontispiece  a  portrait 
of  Buddha  which  exhibits  Buddhism  in  its  receptivity 
and  in  its  readiness  to  adopt  serpent-worship,  or  any 
other  superstition  of  the  races  wdiich  it  strove  to  convert. 


PREFACE.  Xlll 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Wheel,  with  the  Tri-ratna  and  the 
Lotus  (pp.  521,  522),  is  engraved  on  the  title-page  as 
the  best  representative  symbol  of  early  Buddhism.  It  is 
taken  from  a  Buddhist  sculpture  at  Amaravati  engraved 
for  Mr.  Fergusson's  'Tree  and  Serpent- worship '  (p.  237). 
The  portrait  which  faces  page  74  is  well  worthy  of 
attention  as  illustrating  the  connexion  ^  between  Bud- 

^  A  reference  to  pages  74,  226,  232  of  the  following  Lectures  will 
make  the  connexion  which  I  wish  to  illustrate  clearer.  In  many 
images  of  the  Buddha  the  robe  is  drawn  over  both  shoulders,  as  in  the 
portrait  of  the  living  Sannyasi.  Then  mark  other  particulars  in  the 
portrait : — e.g.  the  Rudraksha  rosary  round  the  neck  (see  '  Brahmanism 
and  Hinduism,'  p.  67),  Then  in  front  of  the  raised  seat  of  the  Sannyasi 
are  certain  ceremonial  implements.  First,  observe  the  Kamandalu,  or 
water-gourd,  near  the  right  hand  corner  of  the  seat.  Next,  in  front 
of  the  seat,  on  the  right  hand  of  the  figure,  is  the  Upa-patra — a  sub- 
sidiary vessel  to  be  used  with  the  Kamandalu.  Then,  in  the  middle, 
is  the  Tamra-patra  or  copper  vessel,  and  on  the  left  the  Panca-patra 
with  the  Acamani  (see  'Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  pp.  401,  402). 
Near  the  left  hand  corner  of  the  seat  are  the  wooden  clogs.  Fiqftlly, 
there  is  the  Danda  or  staff  held  in  the  left  hand,  and  used  by  a  Sannyasi 
as  a  defence  against  evil  spirits,  much  as  the  Dorje  (or  Vajra)  is  used 
by  Northern  Buddhist  monks  (see  p.  323  of  the  present  volume). 
This  mystical  staff  is  a  bambu  with  six  knots,  possibly  symbolical  of 
six  ways  (Gati)  or  states  of  life,  through  which  it  is  believed  that  every 
being  may  have  to  migrate — a  belief  common  to  both  Brahmanism  and 
Buddhism  (seep.  122  of  this  volume).  The  staff  is  called  Su-darsana  (a 
name  for  Vishnu's  Cakra),  and  is  daily  worshipped  for  the  preservation 
of  its  mysterious  powers.  The  mystic  white  roll  which  begins  just 
above  the  left  hand  and  ends  before  the  left  knot  is  called  the  Lakshmi- 
vastra,  or  auspicious  covering.  The  projecting  piece  of  cloth  folded  in 
the  form  of  an  axe  (Parasu)  represents  the  weapon  of  Parasu-Earaa, 
one  of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu  (see  pp.  no,  270  of  'Brahmanism 
and  Hinduism ')  with  which  he  subdued  the  enemies  of  the  Brahmans. 
With  this  so-called  axe  may  be  contrasted  the  Buddhist  weapon  for 
keeping  off  the  powers  of  evil  (engraved  at  p.  352). 


xiv  PREFACE. 

dliism  and  Brahmanism.  It  is  from  a  recently-taken 
photograph  of  Mr.  Gauri-Sankar  Uday-Sankar,  C.S.I. 
— a  well-known  and  distinguished  Brahman  of  Bhau- 
nao-ar — who  (with  Mr.  Percival)  administered  the  State 
during  the  minority  of  the  present  enlightened  Maha- 
raja. Like  the  Buddha  of  old,  he  has  renounced  the 
world — that  is,  he  has  become  a  Sannyasi,  and  is  chiefly 
engaged  in  meditation.  He  has  consequently  dropjoed 
the  title  C.S.I.,  and  taken  the  religious  title — Svami 
Sri  Sadcidfinanda-Sarasvati.  His  son,  Mr.  Vijay-Sarikar 
Gauri-Sahkar,  kindly  sent  me  the  photograph,  and  with 
his  permission  I  have  had  it  engraved. 

It  will  be  easily  understood  that,  as  a  great  portion 
of  the  following  pages  had  to  be  delivered  in  the  form 
of  Lectures,  occasional  repetitions  and  recapitulations 
were  unavoidable,  but  I  trust  I  shall  not  be  amenable 
to  the  charge  of  repeating  anything  for  the  sake  of 
'padding.'  I  shall,  with  more  justice,  be  accused  of 
'cramming,'  in  the  sense  of  attempting  to  force  too 
much  information  into  a  sino'le  volume. 

o 
January  i,  1889. 


POSTSCRIPT. 

Since  writing  the  foregoing  prefatory  remarks,  I  have 
observed  with  much  concern  that  a  prevalent  error,  in 
regard  to  Buddhism,  is  still  persistently  propagated. 


EREOE,  IN  REGARD  TO  PREVALENCE  OF  BUDDHISM.      XV 

It  is  categorically  stated  in  a  newspaper  report  of 
a  quite  recent  lecture,  that  out  of  the  world's  popula- 
tion of  about  1500  millions  at  least  500  millions  are 
Buddhists,  and  that  Buddhism  numbers  more  adherents 
than  any  other  religion  on  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

Almost  every  European  writer  on  Buddhism,  of  late 
years,  has  assisted  in  giving  currency  to  this  utterly 
erroneous  calculation,  and  it  is  high  time  that  an  attempt 
should  be  made  to  dissipate  a  serious  misconception. 

It  is  forgotten  that  mere  sympathizers  with  Bud- 
dhism, who  occasionally  conform  to  Buddhistic  prac- 
tices, are  not  true  Buddhists.  In  China  the  great 
majority  are  first  of  all  Confucianists  and  then  either 
Taoists  or  Buddhists  or  both.  In  Japan  Confucianism 
and  Shintoism  co-exist  with  Buddhism.  In  some  other 
Buddhist  countries  a  kind  of  Shamanism  is  practically 
dominant.  The  best  authorities  (mcluding  the  Oxford 
Professor  of  Chinese,  as  stated  in  the  Introduction  to 
his  excellent  work  '  The  Travels  of  Fa-hien ')  are  of 
opinion  that  there  are  not  more  than  100  millions  of 
real  Buddhists  in  the  world,  and  that  Christianity  with 
its  430  to  450  millions  of  adherents  has  now  the  nu- 
merical preponderance  over  all  other  religions.  I  am 
entirely  of  the  same  opinion.  I  hold  that  the  Bud- 
dhism, described  in  the  following  pages,  contained 
within  itself,  from  the  earliest  times,  the  germs  of 
disease,  decay,  and  death  (see  p.  557),  and  that  its 
present  condition  is  one  of  rapidly  increasiug  disinte- 
gration and  decline. 


xvi     ERROR  IN  REGARD  TO  PREVALENCE  OF  BUDDHISM. 

We  must  not  forget  that  Buddhism  has  disappeared 
from  India  proper,  although  it  dominates  in  Ceylon  and 
Burma,  and  although  a  few  Buddhist  travellers  find  their 
way  back  to  the  land  of  its  origin  and  sojourn  there. 

Indeed,  if  I  were  called  upon  to  give  a  rough 
comparative  numerical  estimate  of  the  six  chief  re- 
ligious systems  of  the  world,  I  should  be  inclined,  on 
the  whole,  to  regard  Confucianism  as  constituting,  next 
to  Christianity,  the  most  numerically  prevalent  creed. 
We  have  to  bear  in  mind  the  immense  populations,  both 
in  China  and  Japan,  whose  chief  creed  is  Confucianism. 

Professor  Legge  informs  me  that  Dr.  Happer — an 
American  Presbyterian  Missionary  of  about  45  years 
standing,  who  has  gone  carefully  into  the  statistics  of 
Buddhism — reckons  only  20  millions  of  Buddhists  in 
China,  and  not  more  than  72 J  millions  in  the  whole  of 
Asia.  Dr.  Happer  states  that,  if  the  Chinese  were  re- 
quired to  class  themselves  as  Confucianists  or  Buddhists 
or  Taoists,  44ths,  if  not  -yV-g-ths,  of  them  would,  in  his 
opinion,  claim  to  be  designated  as  Confucianists. 

In  all  probability  his  estimate  of  the  number  of  Bud- 
dhists in  China  is  too  low,  but  the  Chinese  ambassador 
Liii,  witli  whom  Professor  Legge  once  had  a  conversa- 
tion on  this  subject,  ridiculed  the  view  that  they  were 
as  numerous  as  the  Confucianists. 

Undeniably,  as  it  seems  to  me,  the  next  place  after 
Christianity  and  Confucianism  should  be  given  to 
Bnlhmanism  and  Hindiiism,  which  are  not  really  two 
systems  but  practically  one;    the  latter  being  merely 


ERROR  IN  REGARD  TO  PREVALENCE  OF  BUDDHISM,     xvii 

an  expansion  of  the  former,  modified  by  contact  with 
Buddhism. 

Brahmanism,  as  I  have  elsewhere  shown,  is  nothing 
but  spiritual  Pantheism ;  that  is,  a  belief  in  the  univer- 
sal diffusion  of  an  impersonal  Spirit  (called  Brahman  or 
Brahma) — as  the  only  really  existing  Essence — and  in 
its  manifesting  itself  in  Mind  and  in  countless  material 
forces  and  forms,  including  gods,  demons,  men,  and 
animals,  which,  after  fulfilling  their  course,  must  ulti- 
mately be  re-absorbed  into  the  one  impersonal  Essence 
and  be  again  evolved  in  endless  evolution  and  dissolution. 

Hinduism,  with  its  worship  of  Vishnu  and  Siva,  is 
based  on  this  pantheistic  doctrine,  but  the  majority  of 
the  Hindus  are  merely  observers  of  Brahmanical  insti- 
tutions with  their  accompanying  Hindu  caste  usages. 
If,  however,  we  employ  the  term  Hindu  in  its  widest 
acceptation  (omitting  only  all  Islamized  Hindfis)  we 
may  safely  afiirm  that  the  adherents  of  Hinduism  have 
reached  an  aggregate  of  nearly  200  millions.  In  the 
opinion  of  Sir  William  Wilson  Hunter,  they  are  still 
rapidly  increasing,  both  by  excess  of  births  over  deaths 
and  by  accretions  from  more  backward  systems  of  behef. 

Probably  Buddhism  has  a  right  to  the  fourth  place 
in  the  scale  of  numerical  comparison.  At  any  rate  the 
number  of  Buddhists  can  scarcely  be  calculated  at  less 
than  100  millions. 

In  regard  to  Muhammadanism,  this  creed  should 
not,  I  think,  be  placed  higher  than  fifth  in  the  enu- 
meration.    In  its  purest  form  it  ought  to  be  called 

b 


xviii     ERROR  TN  REGARD  TO  PREVALENCE  OF  BUDDHISM. 

Islam,  and  in  that  form  it  is  a  mere  distorted  copy  of 
Judaism. 

The  Empress  of  India,  as  is  well  known,  rules  over 
more  Muhammadans  than  any  other  potentate  in  the 
world.  Probably  the  Musalman  population  of  the 
whole  of  India  now  numbers  55  millions. 

As  to  the  number  of  Muhammadans  in  the  Turkish 
empire,  there  are  no  very  trustworthy  data  to  guide  us, 
but  the  aggregate  is  believed  to  be  about  14  millions ; 
while  Africa  can  scarcely  reckon  more  than  that  number, 
even  if  Egypt  be  included. 

The  sixth  system,  Taoism  (the  system  of  Lao-tsze), 
according  to  Professor  Legge,  should  rank  numerically 
after  both  Muhammadanism  and  Buddhism. 

Of  course  Jainism  (p.  529)  and  Zoroastrianism  (the 
religion  of  the  Parsis)  are  too  numerically  insignificant 
to  occupy  places  in  the  above  comparison. 

It  is  possible  that  a  careful  census  might  result  in 
a  more  favourable  estimate  of  the  number  of  Buddhists 
in  the  world,  than  I  have  here  submitted  ;  but  at  all 
events  it  may  safely  be  alleged  that,  even  as  a  form 
of  popular  religion.  Buddhism  is  gradually  losing  its 
vitality — gradually  loosening  its  hold  on  the  vast  popu- 
lations once  loyal  to  its  rule  ;  nay,  that  the  time  is 
rapidly  approaching  when  its  capacity  for  resistance 
must  give  way  before  the  mighty  forces  which  are 
destined  in  the  end  to  sweep  it  from  the  earth. 

88  G.NSLow  Gardens,  London.  ■"!•    -IM-"  W. 

January  jj,  1889. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Preface  ..........         v 

Postscript  on  the  common  error  in  regard  to  the  comparative 

prevalence  of  Buddhism  in  the  world    .....      xiv 

List  of  Illustrations         ........    xxix 

Rules  for  Pronunciation  .......    xxxi 

Pronunciation  of  Buddha,  etc.     Addenda  and  Corrigenda  .  xxxii 

LECTUEE  I. 
Intkoductoey  Observations. 
Buddhism  in  its  relation  to  Brahmanism.  Various  sects  in 
Brahmanism.  Creed  of  the  ordinary  Hindu.  Pise  of  scepticism 
and  infidelity.  Materialistic  school  of  thought.  Origin  of 
Buddhism  and  Jainism.  Manj-sidedness  of  Buddhtsm.  Its  com- 
plexity. Labours  of  various  scholars.  Divisions  of  the  subject. 
The  Buddha,  his  Law,  his  Order  of  Monks.  Northern  Buddhism  1-17 

LECTURE  II. 

The  Buddha  as  a  Personal  Teacher. 

The  Buddha's  biography.  Date  of  his  birth  and  death.  His 
names,  epithets,  and  titles.  Story  of  the  four  visions.  Birth  of 
the  Buddha's  son.  The  Buddha  leaves  his  home.  His  life  at 
Eaja-griha.  His  study  of  Brahmanical  philosophy.  His  sexennial 
fast.  His  temptation  by  j\Iara.  He  attains  perfect  enlighten- 
ment. The  Bodhi-tree.  Buddha  and  Muhammad  compared. 
The  Buddha's  proceedings  after  his  enlightenment.  His  first 
teaching  at  Benares.  First  sermon.  Effect  of  first  teaching. 
His  first  sixty  missionaries.  His  fire-sermon.  His  eighty  great 
disciples.  His  two  chief  and  sixteen  leading  disciples.  His  forty- 
five  years  of  preaching  and  itineration.  His  death  and  last  words. 
^  Character  of  the  Buddha's  teaching.  His  method  illustrated  by 
an  epitome  of  one  of  his  parables       .....  18-52 

b2 


XX  CONTENTS. 

LECTURE  III. 
The  Dhaema  or  Law  axd  Sceiptuees  of  Buddhism. 

PAGE 

Origin  of  the  Buddhist  Law  (Dharma).  Buddhist  scriptures 
not  like  the  Veda.  First  council  at  Raja-griha.  -  Kasyapa 
chosen  as  leader.  Recitation  of  the  Buddha's  precepts.  Second 
council  at  Vaisall.  Candra-gupta.  Third  council  at  Patna. 
Composition  of  southern  canon.  Tri-pitaka  or  three  collections. 
Rules  of  discipline,  moral  precepts,  philosophical  precepts. 
Commentaries.  Buddha-ghosha.  Asoka's  inscriptions.  His 
edicts  and  proclamations.  Fourth  council  at  Jalandhara.  Ka- 
nishka.  Tlie  northern  canon.  The  nine  Nepalese  canonical 
scriptures.     The  Tibetan  canonical  scriptures  (Kanjur)  .         .   53-70 

LECTURE  IV. 

The  Sang  ha  oe  Buddhist  Order  of  Monks. 

Nature  of  the  Buddhist  brotherhood.  Not  a  priesthood,  not  a 
hierarchy.  Names  given  to  the  monks.  Method  of  admission  to 
the  monkhood.  Admission  of  novices.  Three-refuge  formula. 
Admission  of  full  monks.  Four  resources.  Four  prohibitions. 
Offences  and  penanees.  Eight  practices.  The  monk's  daily  life. 
His  three  garments.  Confession.  Definition  of  the  Saugha  or 
community  of  monks.  Order  of  Nuns,  Lay-brothers  and  lay- 
sisters.  Relation  of  the  laity  to  the  monkhood.  Duties  of  the 
laity.  Later  hierarchical  Buddhism.  Character  of  monks  of 
the  present  day  in  various  countries         .         .         .         ,  71-92 

LECTURE  V. 

The  Phllosophical  Doctrines  of  Buddhism. 

The  philosophy  of  Buddhism  founded  on  that  of  Brahmanism, 
Tlirce  ways  of  salvation  in  Brrdimanism.  The  Buddha's  one  way 
of  salvation.  All  life  is  misery.  Indian  pessimistic  philosophy. 
Twelve-linked  chain  of  causation.  Celebrated  Buddhist  formula. 
Tlie  Buddlia's  attitude  towards  the  Sankhya  and  Vedanta  philo- 
sophy of  the  Biahmaus.     The  Buddha's  negation  of  spirit  and  of  a 


CONTENTS.  Xxi 

PACK 

Supreme  Being.  Brahmanical  theory  of  metempsycliosis.  The 
Buddhist  Skandhas.  The  Buddhist  theory  of  transmigration. 
Only  six  forms  of  existence.  The  Buddha's  previous  births. 
Examples  given  of  stories  of  two  of  his  previous  births.  Destiny 
of  man  dependent  on  liis  own  acts.  Re-creative  force  of  acts. 
Act-force  creating  worlds.  No  knowledge  of  the  first  act.  Cycles 
of  the  Universe.  Interminable  succession  of  existences  like  rota- 
tion of  a  wheel.  Buddhist  Kalj^as  or  ages.  Thirty-one  abodes 
of  six  classes  of  beings  rising  one  above  the  other  in  successive 
tiers  of  lower  worlds  and  three  sets  of  heavens     .         .         .  93-122 

LECTTJRE  VI. 

The   Moeality   of   Buddhism  and   its   chief  aim — 
Arhatship  or  Nirvana. 

Inconsistency  of  a  life  of  morality  in  Buddhism.  Division 
of  the  moral  code.  First  five  and  then  ten  chief  rules  of  moral 
conduct.  Positive  injunctions.  The  ten  fetters  binding  a  man  to 
existence.  Seven  jewels  of  the  Law.  Six  (or  ten)  transcendent 
virtues.  Examples  of  moral  precepts  from  the  Dharma-pada  and 
other  works.  Moral  merit  easily  acquired.  Aim  of  Buddhist 
morality.  External  and  internal  morality.  Inner  condition  of 
heart.  Four  paths  or  stages  leading  to  Arhatship  or  moral  per- 
fection. Three  gi'ades  of  Arhats.  Series  of  Buddhas.  Gautama 
the  fourth  Buddha  of  the  present  age,  and  last  of  twenty-five 
Buddhas.  The  future  Buddha.  Explanation  of  Nirvana  and 
Pari-nirvana  as  the  true  aim  of  Buddhist  morality.  Buddhist 
and  Christian  morality  contrasted       .         .         .         .         .123-146 

LECTURE  VII. 

Changes  in  Buddhism  and  its  disappearance  from  India. 

Tendency  of  all  religious  movements  to  deterioration  and  disin- 
tegration. The  corruptions  of  Buddhism  are  the  result  of  its  own 
fundamental  doctrines.  Re-statement  of  Buddha's  early  teaching. 
Recoil  to  the  opposite  extreme.  Sects  and  divisions  in  Bud- 
dhism. The  first  four  principal  sects,  followed  by  eighteen, 
thirty-two,  and  ninety-six.    Maha-yana  or  Great  Method  (vehicle). 


XXU  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

HTiia-jTina  or  Little  Method.  The  Chinese  Buddhist  travellers, 
Fa-hien  and  Hiouen  Thsang.  Reasons  for  the  disappearance  of 
Buddhism  from  India.  Gradual  amalgamation  -with  surrounding 
systems.  Interaction  between  Buddhism,  Vaishnavism,  and 
Saivisni.  Ultimate  merging  of  Buddhism  in  Brahmanism  and 
Hinduism 147-171 


LECTURE  VIII. 

EisE  OP  Theistic  and  Polytheistic  Buddhism. 

Development  of  the  ^laha-yana  or  Great  Method.  Gradual 
deification  of  saints,  sages,  and  great  men.  Tendency  to  group 
in  triads.  First  triad  of  the  Buddha,  the  Law,  and  the  Order. 
Buddhist  triad  no  trinity.  The  Buddha  to  be  succeeded  by  Mai- 
treya.  Maitreya's  heaven  longed  for.  Constitution  and  gradations 
of  the  Buddhist  brotherhood.  Headship  and  government  of  the 
Buddhist  monasteries.  The  first  Arhats.  Progress  of  the  Maha- 
yfina  docti'ine.  The  first  Bodhi-sattva  Maitreya  associated  with 
numerous  other  Bodhi-sattvas.  Deification  of  ]Maitreya  and  eleva- 
tion of  Gautama's  great  pupils  to  Bodhi-sattvaship.  Partial 
deification  of  great  teachers.  Nagarjuna,  Gorakh-nath.  Bar- 
laam  and  Josaphat     ........   172-194 


LECTURE  IX. 

TuEisTic  AXD  Polytheistic  Buddhism. 

Second  Buddhist  triad,  Manju-srI,  Avalokitesvara  or  Padma- 
pani  and  Vajra-pani.  Description  of  each.  Theory  of  five  human 
P.uddhas,  five  DIiyani-Buddhas  'of  meditation,'  and  five  Dhyani- 
liodlii-sattvas.  Five  triads  f  jrmed  by  grouping  together  one  from 
each.  Theory  of  7Vdi-Buddha.  AVorship  of  the  Dhyani-Buddha 
Ainitabha.  Tiers  of  heavens  connected  with  the  four  Dhyanas  or 
htagi'S  of  meditation.  Account  of  the  later  Buddhist  theory  of 
lower  worlds  and  three  groups  of  heavens.  Synopsis  of  the  twenty- 
.>si.\  heavens  and  their  inhabitants.  Hindu  gods  and  demons 
adopted  by  Buddhism.      Hindu  and  Buddhist  mythology     .    195-222 


CONTENTS.  xxiii 


LECTUEE  X. 

Mystical  Buddhism  in  its  connexion  with  the  Yoga 
Philosophy. 

PACK 

Growth  of  esoteric  and  mystical  Buddhism.  Dhyani-Buddhas. 
Yoga  philosophy.  Svami  Dayilnanda-Sarasvati.  Twofold  Yoga 
system.  Bodily  tortures  of  Yogis.  Fasting.  Complete  absorp- 
tion in  thought.  Progressive  stages  of  meditation.  Samadhi. 
Six  transcendent  faculties.  The  Buddha  no  spiritualist.  Nature 
of  Buddha's  enlightenment.  Attainment  of  miraculous  powers. 
Development  of  Buddha's  early  doctrine.  Eight  requisites  of 
Yoga.  Six-syllabled  sentence.  Mystical  syllables.  Cramping 
of  limbs.  Suppression  and  imprisonment  of  breath.  Suspended 
animation.  Self -concentration.  Eight  supernatural  powers. 
Three  bodies  of  every  Buddha.  Ethereal  souls  and  gross  bodies. 
Buddhist  Mahatmas.  Astral  bodies.  Modern  spiritualism. 
Modern  esoteric  Buddhism  and  Asiatic  occultism        .         .223-252 


LECTrKE  XL 

Hieeaechical  Buddhism,  especially  as  developed  in 
Tibet  and  Mongolia. 

The  Safigha.  Development  of  Hierarchical  gradations  in 
Ceylon  and  in  Burma.  Tibetan  Buddhism.  Northern  Bud- 
dhism connected  with  Shamanism.  Lamism  and  the  Lamistic 
Hierarchy.  Gradations  of  monkhood.  Avatara  Lamas.  Vaga- 
bond Lamas.  Female  Hierarchy.  Two  Lamistic  sects.  Exj^la- 
uation  of  Avatara  theory.  History  of  Tibet.  Early  history  of 
Tibetan  Buddhism.  Thumi  Sambhota's  invention  of  the  Tibetan 
alphabet.  Indian  Buddhists  sent  for  to  Tibet.  Tibetan  canon. 
Tibetan  kings.  Founding  of  monasteries.  Buddhism  adopted  in 
Mongolia.  Hierarchical  Buddhism  in  Mongolia.  Invention  of 
Mongolian  alphabet.  Birth  of  the  Buddhist  reformer  Tsong 
Khapa.  The  Bed  and  Yellow  Cap  schools.  Monasteries  of 
Galdan,  Brepung,  and  Sera.  Character  of  Tsong  Khapa's  refor- 
mation. Kesemblance  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Lamistic 
systems.  Death  and  canonization  of  Tsong  Khapa.  Development 
of  the  i?.vatara  theory.     The  two  Grand  Lamas,  Dalai  Laraa  and 


xxiv  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Panclion  Lama.  Election  of  Dalai  Lama.  Election  of  tlie  Grand 
Lamas  of  Mongolia.  List  of  Dalai  Lamas.  Discovery  of  present 
Dalai  Lima.  The  Lama  or  Khanpo  of  Galdan,  of  Kurun  or 
Kurcn,  of  Kuku  khotun.  Lamism  in  Ladak,  Tangut,  Nepal, 
Bhutan,  Sikkim.  In  China  and  Japan.  Divisions  in  Japanese 
Buddhism.     Buddhism  in  Eussian  territory         .  .  .   253-302 


LECTURE  XIL 

Ceremonial  and  Ritualistic  Buddhism. 

Opposition  of  early  Buddhism  to  sacerdotalism  and  ceremonial- 
ism. Reaction.  Religious  superstition  in  Tibet  and  Mongolia. 
Accounts  by  KoeiDpen,  Schlagintweit,  Markham,  Hue,  Sarat 
Chandra  Das.  Admission-ceremony  of  a  novice  in  Burma  and 
Ceylon.  Boy-pupils.  Daily  life  in  Burmese  monasteries,  accord- 
ing to  Shvvay  Yoe.  Observances  during  Vassa.  Pirit  ceremony. 
Maha-bana  Pirit.  Admission-ceremonies  in  Tibet  and  Mongolia. 
Dress  and  equii:)ment  of  a  Lamistic  monk.  Dorje.  Prayer-bell. 
Use  of  Tibetan  language  in  the  Ritual.  A.  Csoma  de  Koros' 
life  and  labours.  Form  and  character  of  the  Lamistic  Ritual. 
Hue's  description  of  a  particular  Ritual.  Holy  vratei',  conse- 
crated grain,  tea-drinking.  Ceremonies  in  Sikkim  and  Ladak. 
Ceremony  at  Sarat  Chandra  Das'  presentation  to  the  Dalai  Lama. 
Ceremony  at  translation  of  a  chief  Lama's  soul.  Other  ceremonies. 
Uposatha  and  fast-days.  Cir  cum  ambulation.  Comparison  with 
Roman  Catholic  Ritual      .......  303-339 


LECTURE  XIIL 

Festivals,  Domestic  Rites,  and  Foemulaeies  of  Peatees. 

New  Year's  Festivals  in  Burma  and  Tibet.  Festivals  of 
Buddha's  birth  and  death.  Festival  of  lamps.  Local  Festivals. 
Chase  of  the  spirit-kings.  Religious  masquerades  and  dances. 
Religious  dramas  in  Burma  and  Tibet.  AVeapons  used  against 
evil  Hi)irifs.  Dorje.  Phurbu.  Tattooing  in  Burma.  Domestic 
rites  and  usages.  Birth-ceremonies  in  Ceylon  and  Burma. 
Name-giving  ceremonies.      Horoscopes.     Baptism  in  Tibet  and 


CONTENTS.  '  XXV 

PAGE 

Mongolia.  Amulets.  Marriage-ceremonies.  Freedom  of  women 
in  Buddhist  counti'ies.  Usages  in  sickness.  Merit  gained  by 
saving  animal -life.  Usages  at  death.  Cremation.  Funeral- 
ceremonies  in  Sikkim,  Japan,  Ceylon,  Burma,  Tibet,  and  Mon- 
golia. Exposure  of  corpses  in  Tibet  and  Mongolia.  Prayer- 
formularies.  Monlam.  Mani-padme  or 'jewel-lotus  '  formulary. 
Prayer-wheels,  praying-cylinders  and  method  of  using  them. 
Formularies  on  rocks,  etc.  Man  Dangs.  Prayer-flags.  Mystic 
formularies.    Rosaries.    Damaru.     Manual  of  daily  prayers  .  340-386 

LECTURE   XIV. 

Sacked  Places. 

The  sacred  land  of  Buddhism.  Kapila-vastu,  the  Buddha's 
birth-place.  The  arrow-fountain.  Buddha-Gaya.  Ancient 
Temple.  Sacred  tree.  Restoration  of  Temple.  Votive  Stupas. 
Mixture  of  Buddhism  and  Hinduism.  Hiouen  Thsang's  descrip- 
tion of  Buddha-Gaya.  Sarnath  near  Benares.  Ruined  Stupa. 
Sculpture  illustrating  four  events  in  the  Buddha's  career. 
Raja-griha.  Scene  of  incidents  in  the  Buddha's  life.  Deva- 
datta's  plots.  Satta-panni  cave.  Sravastl.  Residence  in  Jeta- 
vana  monastery.  Sandal-wood  image.  Miracles.  VaisalT,  place 
of  second  council.  Description  by  Hiouen  Thsang  and  Fa-hien. 
Kausambi.  Great  monolith.  Nalanda  monastery.  Hiouen 
Thsang's  description.  Sankasya,  place  of  Buddha's  descent  from 
heaven.  Account  of  the  triple  ladder.  Saketa  or  Ayodhya. 
Miraculous  tree.  Kanya-kubja.  Siladitya.  Patali-putra. 
Asoka's  palace.  Founding  of  hospitals.  First  Stupa.  Kesa- 
riya.  Ruined  mound.  Stupa.  Kusi-nagara,  tbe  place  of  the 
Buddha's  deatli  and  Pari-nirv5na        .         .         .         .         •  387-425 


LECTURE  XV. 

Monasteries  and  Temples. 

Five  kinds  of  dwellings  permissible  for  monks.  Institution  of 
monasteries.  Cave-monasteries.  Monasteries  in  Ceylon,  Burma, 
and  British  Sikkim.  Monastery  at  Kllang  in  Lahul;  at 
Kunbum;    at   Kuku   khotun ;   at  Kuren ;    at  Lhassa.     Palace- 


XXVI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

inonasteiy  of  Potala.  Residence  of  Dalai  Lama,  and  Mr. 
Manning's  interview  with  him.  Monasteries  of  La  brang, 
lianioclie,  Moru,  Gar  Ma  Khian.  Tliree  mother-monasteries  of 
the  Yellow  Sect,  Galdan,  Sera,  and  Dapung.  Tashi  Lunpo  and 
the  Tashi  Lama.  Mr.  Bogle's  interview  with  the  Tashi  Lama. 
Turner's  inter\aew  with  the  Grand  Lama  of  the  Terpaling 
monastery.  Sarat  Chandra  Das'  description  of  the  Tashi  Lunpo 
monastery.  Monasteries  of  the  Red  Sect,  Sam  ye  and  Sakya. 
ilouastery  libraries.  Temples.  Cave-temples  or  Caityas. .  The 
Elora  (^'aitya.  The  Karle  Caitya,  Village  temples.  Temples 
in  Ceylon.  Temple  at  Kclani.  Tooth  -  temple  at  Kandy. 
Burmese  temples.  Eangoon  pagoda.  Temples  in  Sikkim, 
Mongolia,  and  Tibet.  Great  temple  at  Lhassa  ;  at  Eamoche ;  at 
Tashi  Lunpo       .........   426-464 


LECTURE  XVL 

Images  and  Idols. 

Introduction  of  idolatry  into  India.  Ancient  image  of  Buddha. 
Gradual  growth  of  objective  Buddhism.  Development  of  image- 
worshiji.  Self-j)roduced  images.  Hiouen  Thsang's  account  of  the 
sandal-wood  image.  Form,  character,  and  general  characteristics 
of  images.  Outgi-owth  of  Buddha's  skull.  Nimbus.  Size,  height, 
and  different  attitudes  of  Buddha's  images.  '  Meditative,'  '  Wit- 
ness,' 'Serpent-canopied,' 'Argumentative 'or  'Teaching,'  'Preach- 
ing,' '  Beuedictive,'  '  jMeudicant,'  and  '  Recumbent '  Attitudes. 
Representations  of  Buddha's  birth.  Images  of  other  Buddhas 
and  Bodhi-sattvas.  Images  of  Amitabha,  of  Maitreya,  of  Manju- 
srl,  of  Avalokitesvara,  of  Kwan-jan  and  Vajra-pani.  Images  of 
other  Bodhi-sattvas,  gods  and  goddesses      ....  465-492 


LECTURE   XVIL 
Sacred  Objects. 

Sung-Yun's  description  of  objects  of  worship.     Three  classes 
of  Buddhist  sacred  objects 493-495 

Relics.       IlindQ    ideas    of    impurity    connected    with    death. 


CONTENTS.  XXVI 1 

PAGE 

Hindu  and  Buddhist  methods  of  honouring  ancestors  compared. 
Worship  of  the  Buddha's  relics.  The  Buddha's  hair  and  nails. 
Eight  portions  of  his  relics.  Adventures  of  one  of  the  Buddha's 
teeth.  Tooth-temple  at  Kandy.  Celestial  light  emitted  by 
relics.  Exhibition  of  relics.  Form  and  character  of  Buddhist 
relic-receptacles.  Caityas,  Stupas,  Dagabas,  and  their  develop- 
ment into  elaborate  structures.     Votive  Stupas  .  .  .  495-506 

Worship  of  foot-prints.  Probable  origin  of  the  worship  of 
foot-prints.  Alleged  foot-prints  of  Christ.  Vishnu-pad  at  Gaya. 
Jaina  pilgrims  at  Mount  Parasnath.  Adam's  Peak.  Foot-prints 
in  various  countries.  Mr.  Alabaster's  descrijDtion  of  the  foot- 
print in  Siam.     Marks  on  the  soles  of  the  Buddha's  feet       .  506-514 

Sacred  trees.  General  prevalence  of  tree-worship.  Belief 
that  spirits  inhabit  trees.  Offerings  hung  on  trees.  Trees  of 
the  seven  principal  Buddhas.  The  Asvattha  or  Pippala  is  of  all 
trees  the  most  revered.  Other  sacred  trees.  The  Kalpa-tree. 
Wishing-tree.     Kabir  Var  tree  .         .....  514-520 

Sacred  symbols.  The  Tri-ratna  symbol.  The  Caki-a  or 
Wheel  symbol.  The  Lotus-flower.  The  Svastika  symbol.  The 
Throne  symbol.    The  Umbrella.    The  Sankha  or  Conch-shell .   520-523 

Sacred  animals.  Worship  of  animals  due  to  doctrine  of 
metempsychosis^     Elephants.     Deer.     Pigs.     Fish      .         .  524-526 

Miscellaneous  objects.  Bells.  Seven  precious  substances. 
Seven  treasures  belonging  to  every  universal  monarch  .  526—528 


SUPPLEMENTAEY    EeMAEKS    ON    THE    CONNEXION    OF    BuDDHISM 
WITH    JaINISM. 

Difference  between  the  Buddhist  and  Jaina  methods  of 
obtaining  liberation.  Niganthas.  Two  Jaina  sects.  Dig-am- 
baras  and  Svetambaras.  The  three  chief  points  of  difference 
between  them.  Their  sacred  books.  Characteristics  of  both 
sects  as  distinguished  from  Buddhism.  Belief  in  existence  of 
souls.  Moral  code.  Three-jewels.  Five  moral  prohibitions. 
Prayer-formula.     Temples  erected  for  acquisition  of  merit   .   529-536 


XXVni  .  CONTENTS. 

LECTURE   XVIIL 
Buddhism  contrasted  with  Christianity. 

PAGE 

True  Buddhism  is  no  religion.  Definition  of  the  word  'religion.' 
Four  characteristics  constitute  a  religion.  Gautama's  claim  to 
be  called  '  the  Light  of  Asia '  examined.  The  Buddha's  and 
Christ's  first  call  to  their  disciples.  The  Christian's  reverence 
for  the  body  contrasted  with  the  Buddhist's  contempt  for  the 
body.  Doctrine  of  storing  up  merit  illustrated,  and  shown  to  be 
common  to  Buddhism,  Brahmanism,  Hinduism,  Confucianism, 
Zoroastrianism,  and  IMuhammadanism.  Doctrine  of  Karma  or 
Act-force.  Buddhist  and  Christian  doctrine  of  deliverance  com- 
pared. Buddhist  and  Christian  moral  jirecepts  compared.  The 
many  benefits  conferred  upon  Asia  by  Buddhism  admitted.  Reli- 
gious feelings  among  Buddhists.  Buddhist  toleration  of  other 
religions. 

Historic  life  of  the  Christ  contrasted  with  legendary  biography 
of  the  Buddha.  Christ  God-sent.  The  Buddha  self-sent. 
Miracles  recorded  in  the  Bible  and  in  the  Tri-pitaka  contrasted. 
Buddhist  and  Christian  self-sacrifice  compared.  Character  and 
style  of  the  Buddhist  Tri-pitaka  contrasted  with  those  of  the 
Christian  Bible.  Various  Buddhist  and  Christian  doctrines 
contrasted.  Which  doctrines  are  to  be  preferred  by  rational  and 
thoughtful  men  iu  the  nineteenth  century  ?  .         .  .  537-563 

OBSERVE. 

The  prevalent  error  in  regard  to  the  number  of  Buddhists  at 
present  existing  in  the  world  is  pointed  out  in  the  Postscript  at  the 
end  of  the  Preface  (p.  xiv). 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

WITH  DESCRIPTIONS. 

PAGE 

1.  Brass  Image  of  Gautama  Buddha  obtained  by  the  Author 

from  Ceylon  .....         Frontispiece 

He  is  seated  on  the  Mudalinda  Serpent  (see  p.  480),  in  an  attitude  of 

profound  meditation,  with  eyes  half  closed,  and  five  rays    of  light 

emerging  from  the  crown  of  his  head. 

2.  Vignette,  representing  the  Cakra  or  'Wheel'  Symbol  with 

Tri-ratna  symbols  in  the  outer  circle  and  Lotus  symbol  in 
the  centre  (see  pp.  521-522)    .  .  .On  Tith-2)age 

Copied  from  the  engraving  of  a  Wheel  supported  on  a  column  at 

Amaravati  (date  about  250  A. d.)  in  Mr.  Fergusson's   'Tree  and 

Serpent  Worship.' 

3.  Map  illustrative  of  the  Sacred  Land  of  Buddhism        To  face     21 

4.  Portrait  of   Mr.   Gaurl-Sarikar    Uday-Saukar,  C.  S.  I.,   now 

Svami  Sri  Saccidananda-SarasvatI  .  .         .        To  face     74 

See  the  explanation  at  p.  siii.  of  the  Preface. 

5.  Magical  Dorje  or  thunderbolt  used  by  Northern  Buddhists    .  323 

6.  Prayer-bell  used  in  worship  .  .         .         .         .         .324 

7.  Magical  weapon  called  Phur-pa,  for  defence  against  evil  spirits  352 

Used  by  Northern  Buddhists.     Brought  from  Darjiling  in  1SS4. 

8.  Amulet  worn  by  a  Tibetan  woman  at  Darjiling  in  1884         .  358 

Purchased   at  Darjiling   and   given   to   the  Author  by  Mr.  Sarat 
Chandra  Das. 

9.  Hand  Prayer- wheel  brought  by  the  Author  from  Darjiling    .  375 

10.  Damaru,  or  sacred  drum,  used  by  vagabond  Buddhist  monks    385 

11.  Ancient  Buddhist  temple  at  Buddha-Gaya,  as  it   appeared 

in  1880 To  face  391 

Erected  about   the  middle   of  the    2nd   century  on   the   ruins    of 

Asoka's  temple,  at  the  spot  where  Gautama  attained  Buddhahood. 

From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  Beglar  enlarged  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Austen. 

12.  The  same  temple  at  Buddha-Gaya,  as  restored  in  1884  To  face  393 

From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  Beglar  enlarged  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Austen. 


XXX  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

13.  Bronze   model    dug   up    at    Moulmein,    representing    triple 

ladder  by  which  Buddha  is  supposed  to  have  descended 
from  heaven  (from  original  in  South  Kensington  Museum)  418 

14.  Remains  of  a  colossal  statue  of  Buddha        .         .        To  face  467 

Probably  in  '  argumentative  '  or  '  teaching  '  attitude  (see  p.  481).  It 
was  found  by  General  Sir  A.  Cunningham  close  to  the  south  side 
of  the  Buddha-Gaya  temple.  The  date  (Samvat  64  =  a.  D.  142)  is 
inscribed  on  the  pedestal. 

15.  Terra-cotta  image  of  Buddha  dug  up  at  Buddha-Gaya  .  477 

Half  the  size  of  the  original  sculpture.  Buddha  is  in  the 
attitude  of  meditation  under  the  tree,  with  a  halo  or  aureola  round 
his  head.     Probable  date,  not  earlier  than  9th  century. 

16.  Sculpture  found  \y^  General  Sir  A.  Cunningham  at  Sarnath, 

near  Benares  .  ......       To  face  477 

Illustrative  of  the  four  principal  events  in  Gautama  Buddha's  life — 
namely,  his  birth,  his  attainment  of  Buddhahood  under  the  tree, 
his  teaching  at  Benares,  and  his  passing  away  in  complete  Nirvana 
(see  p.  387).     Date  about  400  a.  d. 

17.  Sculpture  of  Buddha  in     'Witness-attitude'    on  attaining 

Buddhahood,  under  the  tree  (an  umbrella  is  above)  .  478 

Found  at  Buddha-Gayii.  Date  about  the  9th  century.  The  original 
is  remarkable  for  its  smiling  features  and  for  the  circular  mark 
on  the  forehead.  The  drawing  is  from  a  photograph  belonging 
to  Sir  A.  Cunningham. 

1 8.  Sculpture    of  Buddlia    in    '  "Witness-attitude '    on    attaining 

Buddhahood  under  the  tree     ......  480 

From  a  niche  high  up  on  the  western  side  of  the  Buddha-Gaya 
temple.  It  has  the  '  Ye  dliarnia '  formula  (p.  104")  inscribed  on  each 
side.  It  is  half  the  size  of  the  original  sculpture.  Probable 
date  about  the  nth  century, 

19.  Sculpture  found  at  Buddha-Gayil  representing  the  earliest 

Triad,  viz.  Buddha,  Dharma,  and  Saiigha         .  .  .   485 

The  drawing  is  from  a  photograph  belonging  to  Sir  A.  Cunningham, 
described  at  p.  484. 

20.  Votive  Stupa  found  at  Buddha-Gaya  ,  ,  .        To  face  505 

Probable  date  about  9th  or  loth  century  of  our  era. 

21.  Clay  model  of  a  small  votive  Stiipa      .....  506 

Selected  from  several  which  the  author  saw  in  the  act  of  being  made 
by  a  monk  outside  a  monastery  in  British  Sikkim  in  1884.  This 
model  probably  contains  the  '  Ye  dharmil'  or  some  other  formula  on 
a  seal  inside.     Tlie  engraving  is  exactly  the  size  of  the  original. 


RULES  FOR  PRONUNCIATION. 


VOWELS. 

A,  a,  pronounced  as  in  rural,  or  the  last  a  in  America  ;  A,  a,  as  in 
tar,  father ;  /,  ^,  as  in  fill ;  /,  ^,  as  in  police ;  U,  u,  as  in  bwll ;  U,  i2, 
as  in  rwde ;  Ki,  ri,  as  in  merrily ;  Rl,  ri,  as  in  marine  ;  U,  e,  as  in 
prey;  Ai,  ai,  as  in  oisle ;  0,  o,  as  in  go;  Au,  au,  as  in  HaMs 
(pronounced  as  in  German). 

CONSONANTS. 

K,  k,  pronounced  as  in  ^-ill,  see^- ;  Kh,  kh,  as  in  iuMoi-n ;  G,  g,  as 
in  ^un,  Aog ;  Gh,  gh,  as  in  Aoglivii ;  N,  n,  as  7ig  in  sing  (si/5). 

C,  c,  as  in  dolce  (in  music),  ;=  English  ch  in  chxxvch,  lurch  (luro') ; 
CJiy  ch,  as  in  churcMill  (curc/ull)  ;  J,  j,  as  in  ^'et ;  Jh,  jh,  as  in  hedge- 
hog (hej/iog) ;  N,  n,  as  in  singe  {sinj). 

T,  t,  as  in  true  (fru) ;  Th,  th,  as  in  anthWl  (antJiill) ;  D,  d,  as  in 
cZrum  (fZrum) ;  I)h,  dh,  as  in  recZAaired  (rec?Aaired) ;  JV,  n,  as  in  none 
{nun). 

T,  t,  as  in  water  (as  pronounced  in  Ireland) ;  Th,  th,  as  nui-7iook 
(but  more  dental) ;  D,  d,  as  in  dice  (more  like  th  in  this) ;  Dh,  dh,  as 
in  acZ/iere  (more  dental)  ;  N,  n,  as  in  not,  in. 

P,  J),  as  in  ^ut,  si]) ;  Ph,  2>h,  as  in  u/;/iill ;  B,  b,  as  in  bear,  rub ; 
Ph,  bh,  as  in  abhor ;  M,  m,  as  in  «iap,  jam. 

Y,  y,  as  in  yet ;  ^,  r,  as  in  red,  year  ;  L,  I,  as  in  Zie ;  V,  v,  as  in 
vie  (but  like  to  after  consonants,  as  in  twice). 

S,  s,  as  in  sure,  session ;  Sh,  sh,  as  in  s7mn,  husA ;  S,  s,  as  in  sir, 
hiss.     H,  h,  as  in  Ait. 

In  Tibetan  the  vowels,  including  even  e  and  o,  have  generally  the 
short  sound,  but  accentuated  vowels  are  comparatively  long.  I  have 
marked  such  Avords  as  Lama  Avith  a  long  mark  to  denote  tlris,  but 
Koeppen  and  Jaschke  write  Lama.  Jaschke  says  that  the  Tibetan 
alphabet  was  adapted  from  the  Lancha  form  of  the  Indian  letters  by 
Thumi  (Thonmi)  Sambhota  (see  p.  270)  about  the  year  632. 


OBSERVE. 

It  is  common  to  hear  English-speakers  mispronounce 
the  words  Buddha  and  Buddhism.  But  any  one  who 
studies  the  rules  on  the  preceding  page  will  see  that 
the  u  in  Buddlvd,  must  not  be  pronounced  like  the  u 
in  the  English  word  '  hud,'  but  like  the  u  in  hiil\. 

Indeed,  for  the  sake  of  the  general  reader,  it  might 
be  better  to  write  Booddha  and  Booddhism,  provided 
the  00  be  pronounced  as  in  the  words  '  wood,'  '  good.' 

ADDENDA   and  COERIGENDA. 

Page  21,  line  15.  One  hundred  is  given  as  a  round  number.  The 
actual  distance  is  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles. 

Page  138,  line  16.  It  must  not  be  inferred  that  the  episode  of  the 
Bhagavad-glta  is  of  great  antiquity.  This  point  I  have  made  clear  in 
'  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism '  (p.  63)  as  well  as  in  '  Indian  Wisdom.' 
My  object  at  p.  138  is  simply  to  show  that  Nirvana  is  an  expression 
common  to  Buddhism,  Brahmanism,  and  Hinduism. 

Page  161,  line  2.  Sang  Yun  is  properly  written  Sung  Yun  or 
Sung-Yun. 

Page  178,  line  16.  Probably  all  the  images  of  Dharma  are  meant 
to  be  female,  as  described  in  the  note  on  the  same  page,  and  at  p.  485. 

Page  296,  line  2.  '  Cloven-headed  '  seems  a  misprint  for  eleven- 
headed  ;  but  the  account  of  the  creation  of  Avalokitesvara  at  p.  487  of 
this  volume  justifies  '  cloven-headed.' 

Page  440,  line  10  from  bottom, /or  Lhasta  read  Lhassa. 
It  is  feared  that  the  long-mark  over  the  letter  A  may  have  been 
omitted  in  one  or  i\^o  cases  or  may  have  broken  off  in  printing. 


BUDDHISM. 


LECTURE   I. 

Introductory.    Buddhism  in  relation  to  Brdlimanism. 

In  my  recent  work  ^  on  Brahmanism  I  have  traced 
the  progress  of  Indian  religious  thought  through  three 
successive  stages — called  by  me  Vedism,  Brahmanism, 
and  Hinduism — the  last  including  the  three  subdivi- 
sions of  Saivism,  Vaishnavism,  and  Saktism.  Further- 
more I  have  attempted  to  prove  that  these  systems 
are  not  really  separated  by  sharp  lines,  but  that  each 
almost  imperceptibly  shades  off  into  the  other. 

I  have  striven  also  to"  show  that  a  true  Hindu  of  the 
orthodox  school  is  able  quite  conscientiously  to  accept 
all  these  developments  of  religious  belief  He  holds 
that  they  have  their  authoritative  exponents  in  the 
successive  bibles  of  the  Hindu  religion,  namely,  (i)  the 
four  Yedas — Rig-veda,  Yajur-veda,  Sama-veda,  Atharva- 
veda — and  the  Brahmanas ;  (2)  the  Upanishads  ;  (3)  the 
Law-books — especially  that  of  Manu ;  (4)  the  Bhakti- 
sastras,  including  the  Ramayana,  the  Maha-bharata, 
the  Puranas — especially  the  Bhagavata-purana — and 
the  Bhagavad-gita ;  (5)  the  Tantras. 

^  '  Braliraanism  and  Hiuduism.'  Third  Edition.  John  Murray, 
Albemarle  Street. 

fC  --^  B 


2  INTRODUCTOKY. 

The  chief  works  under  these  five  heads  represent 
the  principal  periods  of  religious  development  through 
which  the  Hindu  mind  has  passed. 

Thus,  in  the  first  place,  the  hymns  of  the  Vedas  and 
the  ritualism  of  the  Brahmanas  represent  physiolatry 
or  the  worship  of  the  personified  forces  of  nature — a 
form  of  religion  wdiich  ultimately  became  saturated 
with  sacrificial  ideas  and  with  ceremonialism  and 
asceticism.  Secondly,  the  Upanishads  represent  the 
pantheistic  conceptions  which  terminated  in  philoso- 
phical Brahmanism.  Thirdly,  the  Law-books  represent 
caste-rules  and  domestic  usages.  Fourthly,  the  Eama- 
yana,  Maha-bharata,  and  Puranas  represent  the  principle 
of  personal  devotion  to  the  personal  gods,  Siva,  Vishnu, 
and  their  manifestations ;  and  fifthly,  the  Tantras  re- 
present the  perversion  of  the  principle  of  love  to 
polluting  and  degrading  practices  disguised  under  the 
name  of  religious  rites.  Of  these  five  phases  of  the 
Hindu  religion  probably  the  first  three  only  prevailed 
when  Buddhism  arose;  but  I  shall  try  to  make  clear 
hereafter  that  Buddhism,  as  it  developed,  accommodated 
itself  to  the  fourth  and  even  ultimately  to  the  fifth 
phase,  admitting  the  Hi/idu.  gods  into  its  own  creed, 
while  Hinduism  also  received  ideas  from  Buddhism. 

At  any  rate  it  is  clear  that  the  so-called  orthodox  Brah- 
man admits  all  five  series  of  works  as  progressive  expo- 
nents of  the  Hindu  system — although  he  scarcely  likes 
to  confess  openly  to  any  adoption  of  the  fifth.  Hence 
his  opinions  are  of  necessity  Protean  and  multiform. 

The  root  ideas  of  his  creed  are  of  course  Pantheistic, 
in  the  sense  of  being  grounded  on  the  identification  of 


BUDDHISM    IN   RELATION    TO    BRAHMANISM.  Q 

o 

the  whole  external  world — which  he  believes  to  be  a 
mere  illusorv  appearance — with  one  eternal,  impersonal, 
spiritual  Essence ;  but  his  religion  is  capable  of  present- 
ing so  many  phases,  according  to  the  stand-point  from 
which  it  is  viewed,  that  its  pantheism  appears  to  be 
continually  sliding  into  forms  of  monotheism  and  poly- 
theism, and  even  into  the  lowest  types  of  animism  and 
fetishism. 

We  must  not,  moreover,  forget — as  I  have  pointed 
out  in  my  recent  work — that  a  large  body  of  the 
Hindus  are  unorthodox  in  respect  of  their  interpreta- 
tion of  the  leading  doctrine  of  true  Brahmanism. 

Such  unorthodox  persons  may  be  described  as  sec- 
tarians or  dissenters.  That  is  to  say,  they  dissent  from 
the  orthodox  pantheistic  doctrine  that  all  gods  and  men, 
all  divine  and  human  souls,  and  all  material  appear- 
ances are  mere  illusory  manifestations  of  one  imjjer- 
sonal  spiritual  Entity — called  Atman  or  Purusha  or 
Brahman — and  they  believe  in  one  supreme  personal 
god — either  Siva  or  Vishnu  or  Krishna  or  Eama — 
who  is  not  liable  (as  orthodox  Brahmans  say  he  is)  to 
lose  his  personality  by  subjection  to  the  universal  law 
of  dissolution  and  re-absorptiort  into  the  one  eternal  im- 
personal Essence,  but  exists  in  a  heaven  of  his  own, 
to  the  bliss  of  which  his  worshippers  are  admitted  ^ 

And  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  sectarians 
are  very  far  from  resting  their  belief  on  the  Vedas,  the 
Brahmanas,  and  Upanishads. 

Their  creed  is  based  entirely  on  the  Bhakti-sastras 

^  The  heaven  of  Siva  is  Kailasa,  of  Vishnu  is  Vaikuntha,  of  Krishna 
is  Goloka. 

B  2 


4  INTRODUCTORY. 

— that  is,  on  the  Ramfiyana,  Maba-bliarata,  and  Puranas 
(especially  on  the  Bhagavata-purana)  and  the  Bhagavad- 
glta,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  scriptures  of  Hinduism. 

Then  a^ain  it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that 
tlie  terms  '  orthodox '  and  '  unorthodox '  have  really 
little  or  no  application  to  the  gieat  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  of  India,  who  in  truth  are  wholly  innocent 
of  any  theological  opinions  at  all,  and  are  far  too 
apathetic  to  trouble  themselves  about  any  form  of 
religion  other  than  that  which  has  belonged  for 
centuries  to  their  families  and  to  the  localities  in 
which  they  live,  and  far  too  ignorant  and  dull  of 
intellect  to  be  capable  of  inquiring  for  themselves 
whether  that  religion  is  likely  to  be  true  or  false. 

To  classify  the  masses  under  any  one  definite  deno- 
mination, either  as  Pantheists  or  Polytheists  or  Mono- 
theists,  or  as  simple  idol-worshippers,  or  fetish-wor- 
shippers, would  be  wholly  misleading. 

Their  faculties  are  so  enfeebled  by  the  debilitating 
effect  of  early  marriages,  and  so  deadened  by  the  drudgery 
of  daily  toil  and  the  dire  necessity  of  keeping  body  and 
soul  together,  that  they  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be 
capable  of  holding  any  definite  theological  creed  at  all. 

It  would  be  nearer  the  truth  to  say  that  the  religion 
of  an  ordinary  Hindu  consists  in  observing  caste-cus- 
toms, local  usages,  and  family  observances,  in  holding 
what  may  be  called  the  Folk-legends  of  his  neighbour- 
hood, in  propitiating  evil  spirits  and  in  worshipping 
the  imnge  and  sufjerscription  of  the  Empress  of  India, 
impressed  on  the  current  coin  of  the  country. 

As  a  rule  such  a  man  gives  himself  no  uneasiness 


BUDDHISM   IN   RELATION   TO    BRAHMANISM.  5 

whatever  about  his  prospects  of  happiness  or  misery  in 
the  world  to  come. 

He  is  quite  content  to  commit  his  interests  in  a 
future  life  to  the  care  and  custody  of  the  Brahnians; 
while,  if  he  thinks  about  the  nature  of  a  Supreme 
Being  a,t  all,  he  assumes  His  benevolence  and  expects 
His  good  will  as  a  matter  of  course. 

What  he  really  troubles  himself  about  is  the  neces- 
sity for  securing  the  present  favour  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  unseen  world,  supposed  to  occupy  the  atmo- 
sphere everywhere  around  him — of  the  good  and  evil 
demons  and  spirits  of  the  soil — generally  represented 
by  lucle  and  grotesque  images,  and  artfully  identified 
by  village  priests  and  Brahmans  with  alleged  forms 
of  Vishnu  or  Siva. 

It  follows  that  the  mind  of  the  ordinary  HindO, 
though  indifferent  about  all  definite  dogmatic  religion, 
is  steeped  in  the  kind  of  religiousness  best  expressed 
by  the  word  Seia-iSaifxoi'la.  He  lives  in  perpetual  dread 
of  invisible  beings  who  are  thought  to  be  exerting 
their  mysterious  influences  above,  below,  around,  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  his  own  dwelling.  The 
very  winds  which  sweep  across  his  homestead  are 
believed  to  swarm  with  spirits,  who  unless  duly  pro- 
pitiated will  blight  the  produce  of  his  fields,  or  bring 
down  upon  him  injury,  disease,  and  death. 

Then  again,  besides  the  orthodox  and  besides  the 
sectarian  Hindu  and  besides  the  great  demon-wor- 
shipping, idolatrous,  and  superstitious  majority,  another 
class  of  the  Indian  community  must  also  be  taken  int(; 
account— the   class   of  rationalists   and    free-thinkers. 


6  INTRODUCTORY. 

These  have  been  common  in   India  from  the  earliest 
times. 

First  came  a  class  of  conscientious  doubters,  who 
strove  to  solve  the  riddle  of  life  by  microscopic  self- 
introspection  and  sincere  searchings  after  truth,  and 
these  did  their  best  not  to  break  with  the  Veda,  Yedic 
revelation,  and  the  authority  of  the  Brahmans. 

Earnestly  and  reverently  such  men  applied  them- 
selves to  the  difficult  task  of  trying  to  answer  such 
questions  as  —  What  am  I  ?  Whence  have  I  come  ? 
Whither  am  I  going  1  How  can  I  exjDlain  my  con- 
sciousness of  personal  existence  1  Have  I  an  imma- 
terial spirit  distinct  from,  and  independent  of,  my 
material  frame  1  Of  what  nature  is  the  world  in  which 
I  find  myself'^  Did  an  all-powerful  Being  create  it  out 
of  nothing "?  or  did  it  evolve  itself  out  of  an  eternal 
protoplasmic  germ  ?  or  did  it  come  together  by  the 
combination  of  eternal  atoms  ?  or  is  it  a  mere  illu- 
sion ?  If  cic?^fed  by  a  Being  of  infinite  wisdom  and 
love,  how  can  r^  account  for  the  co-existence  in  it  of 
o-ood  and  evil  ha(^piness  and  misery?  Has  the  Creator 
form,  or  is  He  foiWless  ?  Has  He  qualities  and  affec- 
tions, or  has  He  no»ne  ? 

It  was  in  the  eflu^rt  to  solve  such  insoluble  enigmas 
by  their  own  unaidt^d  intuitions  and  in  a  manner  not 
too  subversive  of  tnWitional  dogma,  that  the  systems 
of  philosophy  foundecU  on  the  Upanishads  originated. 

These  have  been  described  in  my  book  on  Brahman- 
ism.  They  were  gradjially  excogitated  by  independent 
thinkers,  who  claimed  W  be  Brahmans  or  twice-born  men, 
and  nominally  accepted  the  Veda  with  its  Brahmanas, 


\ 


BUDDHISM    IN    RELATION   TO    BRAHMANISM.  7 

while  they  covertly  attacked  it,  or  at  least  abstained  from 
denouncing  it  as  absolutely  untrue.  Such  men  tacitly 
submitted  to  sacerdotal  authority,  though  they  reallv 
propounded  a  way  of  salvation  based  entirely  on  self- 
evolved  knowledge,  and  quite  independent  of  all  Vedic 
sacrifices  and  sacrificing  priests.  The  most  noteworthy 
and  orthodox  of  the  systems  propounded  by  them  was 
the  Vedanta  ^,  which,  as  I  have  shown,  was  simply 
spiritual  Pantheism,  and  asserted  that  the  one  Spirit 
was  the  only  real  Being  in  the  Universe. 

But  the  origin  of  the  more  unorthodox  systems,  which 
denied  the  authority  of  both  the  Veda  and  the  Brah- 
mans,  must  also  be  traced  to  the  influence  of  the  Upani- 
shacls.  For  it  is  undeniable  that  a  spirit  of  atheistic 
infidelity  grew  up  in  India  almost  ^ari  i^assu  with 
dogmatic  Brahmanism,  and  has  always  been  prevalent 
there.  In  fact  it  would  be  easy  to  show  that  periodical 
outbursts  of  unbelief  and  agnosticism  have  taken  placa 
in  India  very  much  in  the  same  way  as  in  Europe ;  but 
the  tendency  to  run  into  extremes  has  always  been 
greater  on  Indian  soil  and  beneath  the  glow  and 
glamour  of  Eastern  skies.  On  the  one  side,  a  far  more 
unthinking  respect  than  in  any  other  country  has  been 
paid  to  the  authority  of  priests,  who  have  declared  their 
supernatural  revelation  to  be  the  very  breatli  of  God, 
sacrificial  rites  to  be  the  sole  instruments  of  salvation, 

^  The  Saiikhya  system,  as  I  have  shown,  was  closely  connected  with 
the  Vedanta,  though  it  recognized  the  separate  existence  of  countless 
individual  Purushas  or  spirits  instead  of  the  one  (called  Atman). 
Both  had  much  in  common  with  Buddliisni,  though  the  latter  sub- 
stituted Siinya  '  a  void '  for  Purusha  and  Atman. 


8  INTRODUCTORY. 

and  tbemselves  the  sole  mediators  between  earth  and 
heaven ;  on  the  other,  far  greater  latitude  than  in 
any  other  country  has  been  conceded  to  infidels  and 
atheists  who  have  poured  contempt  on  all  sacerdotal 
dogmas,  have  denied  all  supernatural  revelation,  have 
made  no  secret  of  their  disbelief  in  a  personal  God, 
and  have  maintained  that  even  if  a  Supreme  Being 
and  a  spiritual  world  exist  they  are  unknowable  by 
man  and  beyond  the  cognizance  of  his  faculties. 

We  learn  indeed  from  certain  passages  of  the  Veda 
(R,ig-veda  II.  12.  5  ;  VIII.  100.  3,  4)  that  even  in  the 
Vedic  age  some  denied  the  existence  of  the  god  Indra. 

We  know,  too,  that  Yaska,  the  well-known  Vedic 
commentator,  who  is  believed  to  have  lived  before  the 
grammarian  Panini  (probably  in  the  fourth  century 
B.  c),  found  himself  obliged  to  refute  the  sceptical 
ai'guments  of  Kautsa  and  others  who  pronounced  the 
Veda  a  tissue  of  nonsense  (Nirukta  I.  15,  16). 

Again,  Manu — whose  law-book,  according  to  Dr. 
Bllhler,  was  composed  between  the  second  century  b.  c. 
and  the  second  a.  d.,  and,  in  my  opinion,  possibly  earlier 
— has  the  following  remark  directed  against  sceptics: — 

'  The  twice-born  man  who  depending  on  rationalistic 
treatises  (hetu-sastra)  contemns  the  two  roots  of  law 
(sruti  and  smriti),  is  to  be  excommunicated  (vahish- 
karyah)  by  the  righteous  as  an  atheist  (nastika)  and 
despiser  of  the  Veda'  (Manu  II.  1 1). 

Furthermore,  the  Maha-bharata,  a  poem  which  con- 
tains many  ancient  legends  quite  as  ancient  as  those  of 
early  Buddhism,  relates  (Santi-parvan  1410,  etc.)  the 
stoiy  of  the  infidel  Carvaka,  who  in  the  diso-nise  of  a 


BUDDHISM    IN    RELATION   TO    BRAHMANISM.  9 

mendicant  Braliman  uttered  sentiments  dangerously 
heretical. 

This  Carvaka  was  the  supposed  founder  of  a  materi- 
alistic school  of  thought  called  Lokayata.  Kejecting 
all  instruments  of  knowledge  (pramana)  except  percep- 
tion by  the  senses  (pratyaksha),  he  affirmed  that  the  soul 
did  not  exist  separately  from  the  body,  and  that  all  the 
phenomena  of  the  world  were  spontaneously  produced. 

The  following  abbreviation  of  a  passage  in  the  Sarva- 
darsana-sahgraha ^  will  give  some  idea  of  this  schools 
infidel  doctrines,  the  very  name  of  which  (Lokayata, 
'  generally  current  in  the  world ')  is  an  evidence  of  the 
poj^ularity  they  enjoyed  : — 

No  heaven  exists,  no  final  liberation, 

No  soul,  no  other  world,  no  rites  of  caste, 

No  recompense  for  acts ;    let  life  be  spent, 

In  merriment  ^ ;    let  a  man  borrow  money 

And  live  at  ease  and  feast  on  melted  butter. 

How  can  this  body  when  reduced  to  dust 

Revisit  earth  1   and  if  a  ghost  can  pass 

To  other  worlds,  why  does  not  strong  affection 

For  those  he  leaves  behind  attract  him  back  1 

Oblations,  funeral  rites,  and.  sacrifices 

Are  a  mere  means  of  livelihood  devised 

By  sacerdotal  cunning — nothing  more. 

The  three  composers  of  the  triple  Veda 

Were  rogues,  or  evil  spirits,  or  buffoons. 

The  recitation  of  mysterious  words 

And  jabber  of  the  priests  is  simple  nonsense. 

Then  again,  the  continued  prevalence  of  sceptical 
opinions  may  be  shown  by  extracts  from  other  portions 


1  Freely  translated  by  me  in  Indian  Wisdom,  p.  133,  and  literally 
translated  by  Prof.  E.  B.  Cowell. 

^  '  Let  us  eat  and  drink  for  to-morrow  we  die.'      i  Cor.  xv.  32. 


lO  INTRODUCTORY. 

of  tbe  later  literature.  For  example,  in  the  Ramayana 
(II.  1 08)  the  infidel  Brahman  Javali  gives  utterance  to 
similar  sentiments  thus  : — 

'  The  books  composed  by  theologians,  in  which  men 
are  enjoined  to  worsliip,  give  gifts,  offer  sacrifice, 
practise  austerities,  abandon  the  world,  are  mere  arti- 
fices to  draw  forth  donations.  Make  up  your  mind  that 
no  one  exists  hereafter.  Have  resrard  onlv  to  what  is 
visible  and  perceptible  by  the  senses  (pratyaksham). 
Cast  everything  be^'ond  this  behind  your  back.' 

Furthermore,  in  a  parallel  passage  from  the  Vishnu- 
purana,  it  is  declared  that  the  great  Deceiver,  practising 
illusion,  beguiled  other  demon-like  beings  to  embrace 
many  sorts  of  heresy  ;  some  reviling  the  Vedas,  others 
the  gods,  others  the  ceremonial  of  sacrifice,  and  otheis 
the  Brahmans\     These  were  called  Nastikas. 

Such  extracts  prove  that  the  worst  forms  of  see j)ticism 
prevailed  in  l^oth  early  and  mediseval  times.  But  all 
phases  and  varieties  of  heretical  thought  were  not 
equally  offensive,  and  it  would  certainly  be  unfair  and 
misleading  to  place  Buddliism  and  Jainism  on  the  same 
level  with  the  reckless  Pyrrhonism  of  the  Cilrvakas 
who  had  no  code  of  morality. 

And  indeed  it  was  for  this  very  reason,  that  when 
Buddhism  and  Jainism  began  to  make  their  presence 
felt  in  tlie  fifth  century  B.  c.  they  became  far  more  for- 
midable than  any  other  phase  of  scepticism. 

Whether,  however,  Buddhism  or  Jainism  be  entitled 
to  chronological   precedence  is  still  an  open  question, 

^  See  Dr.  John  Muir's  Article  ou  Indian  Materialists,  Journal  of 
Eoyal  Asiatic  Society,  N.  S.  xix,  p.  302. 


BUDDHISM    IN   RELATION   TO    JAINISM.  I  I 

about  which  opmions  may  reasonably  differ.  Some  hold 
that  they  were  always  quite  distinct  from  each  other, 
and  were  the  products  of  inquiry  originated  by  two 
independent  thinkers,  and  many  scholars  now  consider 
that  the  weight  of  evidence  is  in  favour  of  Jainism  being 
a  little  antecedent  to  Buddhism.  Possibly  the  two 
systems  resulted  from  the  splitting  up  of  one  sect  into 
two  divisions,  just  as  the  two  Brahma-Samajes  of  Cal- 
cutta are  the  product  of  the  Adi-Samaj. 

One  point  at  least  is  certain,  that  notwithstanding 
much  community  of  thought  between  Buddhism  and 
Jainism,  Buddhism  ended  in  gaining  for  itself  by  far 
the  more  important  position  of  the  two.  For  although 
Jainism  has  shown  more  tenacity  of  life  in  India,  and 
has  lingered  on  there  till  the  present  day,  it  never 
gained  any  hold  on  the  masses  of  the  population,  whereas 
its  rival,  Buddhism,  radiating  from  a  central  point  in 
Hindustan,  spread  itself  first  over  the  whole  of  India 
and  then  over  nearly  all  Eastern  Asia,  and  has  played 
— as  even  its  most  hostile  critics  must  admit — an  im- 
portant role  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

To  Buddhism,  therefore,  we  have  now  to  direct  our 
attention,  and  at  the  very  threshold  of  our  inquiries  we 
are  confronted  with  tin's  difficulty,  that  its  great  popu- 
larity and  its  wide  diffusion  among  many  peoples  have 
made  it  most  difficult  to  answer  the  question  : — What 
is  Buddhism  "?  If  it  were  possible  to  reply  to  the  inquiry 
in  one  word,  one  might  perhaps  say  that  true  Buddhism, 
theoretically  stated,  is  JIumanitarianism,  meaning  by 
that  term  something  very  like  the  gospel  of  humanity 
preached  by  the  Positivist,  whose  doctrine  is  the  eleva- 


1 2  INTRODUCTORY. 

tion  of  man  throiigli  man — that  is,  through  human 
intellect,  human  intuitions,  human  teaching,  human 
experiences,  and  accumulated  human  efforts — to  the 
higliest  ideal  of  perfection ;  and  yet  something  very 
different.  For  the  Buddhist  ideal  differs  toto  cselo  from 
the  Positivist's,  and  consists  in  the  renunciation  of  all 
personal  existence,  ev^en  to  the  extinction  of  humanity 
itself.    The  Buddhist's  perfection  is  destruction  (p.  123). 

But  such  a  reply  would  have  only  reference  to  the 
truest  and  earliest  form  of  Buddhism.  It  would  cover 
a  very  minute  portion  of  the  vast  area  of  a  subject 
which,  as  it  grew,  became  multiform,  multilateral,  and 
almost  infinite  in  its  ramifications. 

Innumerable  writers,  indeed,  during  the  past  thirty 
years  have  been  attracted  by  the  great  interest  of  the 
inquiry,  and  have  vied  with  each  other  in  their  efforts 
to  give  a  satisfactory  account  of  a  system  whose  de- 
velopments have  varied  in  every  country ;  wdiile 
lecturers,  essayists,  and  the  authors  of  magazine  articles 
are  constantly  adding  their  contributions  to  the  mass 
of  floating  ideas,  and  too  often  propagate  crude  and 
erroneous  conceptions  on  a  subject,  the  depths  of  which 
they  have  never  thoroughly  fathomed. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  annexation  of  Upper 
Burma,  while  giving  an  impulse  to  Pali  and  Buddhistic 
studies,  may  hel])  to  throw  light  on  some  obscure  points. 

Certainly  Buddhism  continues  to  be  little  understood 
by  the  great  majority  of  educated  persons.  Nor  can 
any  misunderstanding  on  such  a  subject  be  matter  of 
surprise,  when  writers  of  high  character  colour  their 
descriptions  of  it  from  an  examination  of  one  part  of 


MANYSIDEDNESS    OF    BUDDHISM.  I'' 

the  system  only,  without  due  regard  to  its  other  phases, 
and  in  this  way  either  exalt  it  to  a  far  higher  position 
than  it  deserves,  or  depreciate  it  unfairly. 

And  Buddhism  is  a  subject  which  must  continue  for 
a  long  time  to  present  the  student  with  a  boundless 
field  of  investigation.  No  one  can  bring  a  proper  capa- 
city of  mind  to  such  a  study,  much  less  write  about  it 
clearly,  who  has  not  studied  the  original  documents  both 
in  Pali  and  in  Sanskrit,  after  a  long  course  of  prepara- 
tion in  the  study  of  Vedism,  Brahmanism,  and  Hinduism. 
It  is  a  system  which  resembles  these  other  forms 
of  Indian  rehgious  thought  in  the  great  variety  of 
its  aspects.  Starting  from  a  very  simple  proposition, 
which  can  only  be  described  as  an  exaggerated  truism 
— the  truism,  I  mean,  that  all  life  involves  sorrow, 
and  that  all  sorrow  results  from  indulging  desires  which 
ought  to  be  suppressed— it  has  branched  out  into  a 
vast  number  of  complicated  and  self-contradictory 
propositions  and  allegations.  Its  teaching  has  become 
both  negative  and  positive,  agnostic  and  gnostic.  It 
passes  from  apparent  atheism  and  materiahsm  to  theism, 
polytheism,  and  spiritualism.  It  is  under  one  aspect 
mere  pessimism  ;  under  another  pure  philanthropy ; 
under  another  monastic  communism  ;  under  another 
high  morality;  under  another  a  variety  of  materialistic 
philosophy  ;  under  another  simple  demonology ;  under 
another  a  mere  farrago  of  superstitions,  including 
necromancy,  witchcraft,  idolatry,  and  fetishism.  In 
some  form  or  other  it  may  be  held  with  almost 
any  religion,  and  embraces  something  from  almost 
every  creed.     It   is   founded    on    philosophical    Brali- 


14  INTRODUCTORY. 

manism,  lias  much  in  common  with  Siiiikliya  and 
Vedanta  ideas,  is  closely  connected  with  Vaishnavism, 
and  in  some  of  its  phases  with  both  Saivism  and 
Saktism,  and  yet  is,  properly  speaking,  opposed  to 
every  one  of  these  systems.  It  has  in  its  moral  code 
much  common  ground  with  Christianity,  and  in  its 
mediaeval  and  modern  developments  presents  examples 
of  forms,  ceremonies,  litanies,  monastic  communities, 
and  hierarchical  organizations,  scarcely  distinguishable 
from  those  of  Koman  Catholicism;  and  yet  a  greater 
contrast  than  that  presented  by  the  essential  doctrines 
of  Buddhism  and  of  Christianity  can  scarcely  be 
imagined.  Strangest  of  all,  Buddhism — with  no  God 
higher  than  the  perfect  man — has  no  pretensions  to 
be  called  a  religion  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  and 
is  wholly  destitute  of  the  vivifying  forces  necessary  to 
give  vitality  to  the  dry  bones  of  its  own  morality ;  and 
yet  it  once  existed  as  a  real  power  over  at  least 
a  third  of  the  human  race,  and  even  at  the  present 
moment  claims  a  vast  number  of  adherents  in  Asia, 
and  not  a  few  sympathisers  in  Europe  and  America. 

Evidently,  then,  any  Orientalist  wdio  undertakes  to 
give  a  clear  and  concise  account  of  Buddhism  in  the 
compass  of  a  few  lectures,  must  find  himself  engaged 
in  a  very  venturesome  and  difficult  task. 

Happily  we  are  gaining  acquaintance  with  the 
Southern  or  purest  form  of  Buddhism  through  editions 
and  translations  of  the  texts  of  the  Pali  Canon  by 
Fausboll,  Childers,  Ehys  Davids,  Oldenberg,  Morris, 
Trenckner,  L.  Feer,  etc.  We  owe  much,  too,  to  the 
works  of  Tumour,  Hardy,  Clough,  Gogerly,  D'Alwis, 


NORTHERN   BUDDHISM.  1 5 

Burnouf,  Lassen,  Spiegel,  Weber,  Koeppen,  Minayeff, 
Bigaiidet,  Max  Mtiller,  Kern,  Ed.  Miiller,  E.  Kuhn, 
Piscliel,  and  others.  These  enable  us  to  form  a  fair 
estimate  of  what  Buddhism  was  in  its  early  days. 

But  the  case  is  different  when  we  turn  to  the 
Northern  Buddhist  Scriptures,  written  generally  in 
tolerably  correct  Sanskrit  (with  Tibetan  translations). 
These  continue  to  be  little  studied,  notwithstanding  the 
materials  placed  at  our  command  and  the  good  work 
done,  first  by  the  distinguished  '  founder  of  the  study  of 
Buddhism,'  Brian  Hodgson,  and  by  Burnouf,  Wassiljew, 
Co  well,  Senart,  Kern,  Beal,  Foucaux,  and  others.  In 
fact,  the  moment  we  pass  from  the  Buddhism  of  India, 
Ceylon,  Burma,  and  Siam,  to  that  of  Nepal,  Kashmir, 
Tibet,  Bhutan,  Sikkim,  China,  Mongolia,  Manchuria, 
Corea,  and  Japan,  we  seem  to  have  entered  a  labyrinth, 
the  clue  of  which  is  continually  slipping  from  our  hands. 

Nor  is  it  possible  to  classify  the  varying  and  often 
conflicting  systems  in  these  latter  countries,  under  the 
one  general  title  of  Northern  Buddhism. 

For  indeed  the  changes  which  religious  systems  under- 
go, even  in  countries  adjacent  to  each  other,  not  unfre- 
quently  amount  to  an  entire  reversal  of  their  whole 
character.  We  may  illustrate  these  changes  by  the 
variations  of  words  derived  from  one  and  the  same  root 
in  neighbouring  countries.  Take,  for  example,  the  Ger- 
man words  selig,  '  blessed,'  and  knabe,  '  a  boy,'  which 
in  England  are  represented  by  '  silly'  and  '  knave.' 

A  similar  law  appears  to  hold  good  in  the  case  of 
religious  ideas.  Their  whole  character  seems  to  change 
by  a  change  of  latitude  and  longitude.     This  is  even 


1 6  INTRODUCTORY. 

true  of  Christiainty.  Can  it  be  maiiitainecl,  for  instance, 
that  the  Christianity  of  modern  Greece  and  Kome  has 
mucli  in  common  with  early  Christianity,  and  would 
any  casual  observer  believe  that  the  inhabitants  of  St. 
Petersburg,  Berlin,  Edinburgh,  London,  and  Paris  were 
followers  of  the  same  religion? 

It  cannot  therefore  surprise  us  if  Buddhism  developed 
into  apparently  contradictory  systems  in  different 
countries  and  under  varying  climatic  conditions.  In  no 
two  countries  did  it  preserve  the  same  features.  Even 
in  India,  the  land  of  its  birth,  it  had  greatly  changed 
during  the  first  ten  centuries  of  its  prevalence.  So 
much  so  that  had  it  been  possible  for  its  founder  to 
reappear  upon  earth  in  the  fifth  century  after  Christ,  he 
would  have  failed  to  recognize  his  own  child,  and  would 
have  found  that  his  own  teaching  had  not  escaped  the 
operation  of  a  law  which  experience  jDroves  to  be 
universal  and  inevitable. 

It  is  easy,  therefore,  to  understand  how  ditficult  it 
wiU  be  to  give  any  semblance  of  unity  to  my  present 
subject.  It  will  be  impossible  for  me  to  treat  as  a 
consistent  whole  a  system  having  a  perpetually  varying 
front  and  no  settled  form.  I  can  only  give  a  series 
of  somewhat  rough,  though,  I  hope,  trustworthy  out- 
lines, as  far  as  possible  in  methodical  succession. 

And  in  the  carrying  out  of  such  a  design,  the  three 
objects  that  will  at  first  naturally  present  themselves 
for  delineation  will  be  three  which  constitute  the  well- 
known  triad  of  early  Buddhism — that  is  to  say,  the 
Buddha  himself.  His  Law  and  His  Order  of  Monks. 

Hence  my  aim  will  be,  in  the  first  place,  to  give  such 


DIVISIONS    OF   THE    SUBJECT.  1 7 

a  historical  account  of  the  Buddha  and  of  his  earliest 
teaching  as  may  be  gathered  from  his  legendary  bio- 
graphy, and  from  the  most  trustworthy  parts  of  the 
Buddhist  canonical  scriptures.  Secondly,  I  shall  give  a 
brief  description  of  the  origin  and  composition  of  those 
scriptures  as  containing  the  Buddha's  'Law'  (Dharma) ; 
and  thirdly,  I  shall  endeavour  to  explain  the  early  con- 
stitution of  the  Buddha's  Order  of  Monks  (Sangha). 
After  treating  of  these  three  preliminary  topics,  I  shall 
next  describe  the  Law  itself;  that  is,  the  philosophical 
doctrines  of  Buddhism,  its  code  of  morality  and  theory 
of  perfection,  terminating  in  Nirvana.  Lastly,  I  shall 
attempt  to  trace  out  the  confused  outlines  of  theistic, 
mystical,  and  hierarchical  Buddhism,  as  developed  in 
Northern  countries,  adding  an  account  of  sacred  objects 
and  places,  and  contrasting  the  chief  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity. In  regard  to  the  Buddhism  of  Tibet,  I  shall 
chiefly  base  my  explanations  on  Koeppen's  great  work — 
a  work  never  translated  into  English  and  now  out  of  print 
—  as  well  as  on  my  own  researches  during  my  travels 
through  the  parts  of  India  bordering  on  that  country. 

And  here  I  ought  to  state  that  my  explanations 
and  descriptions  will,  I  fear,  be  wholly  deficient  in 
picturesqueness.  My  simple  aim  will  be  to  convey  clear 
and  correct  information  in  unembellished  language ;  and 
in  doing  this,  I  shall  often  be  compelled  to  expose  my- 
self to  the  reproach  contained  in  the  expressions,  carvita- 
carvanam,  '  chewing  the  chewed,'  and  pishta-jyesJianam, 
'grinding  the  ground.'  I  shall  constantly  be  obliged 
to  tread  on  ground  already  well  trodden. 

To  begin,  then,  with  the  Buddha  himself. 


LECTURE  II. 

Tlie  Buddha  as  a  personal  Teacher. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  among  all  the  sacred 
books  that  constitute  the  Canon  of  the  Southern  Bud- 
dhists (see  p.  6i) — the  only  true  Canon  of  Buddhism — 
there  is  no  trustworthy  biography  of  its  Founder. 

For  Buddhism  is  nothing  without  Buddha,  just  as 
Zoroastrianism  is  nothing  without  Zoroaster,  Confu- 
cianism nothing  without  Confucius,  Muhammadanism 
nothing  without  Muhammad,  and  I  may  add  with  aU  re- 
verence, Christianity  nothing  without  Christ, 

Indeed,  no  religion  or  religious  system  which  has  not 
emanated  from  some  one  heroic  central  personality,  or 
in  other  words,  which  has  not  had  a  founder  whose 
strongly  marked  personal  character  constituted  the  very 
life  and  soul  of  his  teaching  and  the  chief  factor  in  its 
effectiveness,  has  ever  had  any  chance  of  achieving 
world-wide  acceptance,  or  ever  spread  far  beyond  the 
place  of  its  origin. 

Hence  the  barest  outline  of  primitive  Buddhism  must 
be  incomplete  without  some  sketch  of  the  life  and 
character  of  Gautama  Buddha  himself.  Yet  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  find  any  sure  basis  of  fact  on  which  we  may  con- 
struct a  fairly  credible  biography. 

In  all  likelihood  legendary  histories  of  the  Founder  of 


THE   BUDDHA  S   BIOGRAPHY.  1 9 

Buddhism  were  current  in  Nepal  and  Tibet  in  the  early 
centuries  of  our  era ;  but  unhappily  his  too  enthusiastic 
and  imaginative  admirers  have  thought  it  right  to 
testify  their  admiration  by  interw^eaving  with  the  pro- 
bable facts  of  Gautama  Buddha's  life,  fables  so  extrava- 
gant that  some  modern  critical  scholars  have  despaired 
of  attempting  to  sift  truth  from  fiction,  and  have  even 
gone  to  the  extreme  of  doubting  that  Gautama  Buddha 
ever  lived  at  all. 

To  believe  nothing  that  has  been  recorded  about  him, 
is  as  unreasonable  as  to  accept  with  unquestioning  faith 
all  the  miraculous  circumstances  which  are  made  to 
encircle  him  as  with  a  halo  of  divine  glory. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  when  Gautama  Buddha 
lived — about  the  fifth  century  b.  c. — the  art  of  writing 
was  not  common  in  India  ^  We  may  point  out,  too, 
that  in  all  countries,  European  as  well  as  Asiatic — 
notably  in  Greece  (witness,  for  example,  the  familiar 
instance  of  Socrates) — men  have  thought  more  of  pre- 
serving the  sayings  of  their  teachers  than  of  recording 
the  facts  of  their  lives. 

And  we  must  not  forget  that  in  India — where  the 
imaginative  faculties  have  always  been  too  active,  and 
anything  like  real  history  is  unknown — any  plain 
matter-of-fact  biography  of  the  most  heroic  personage 
would  have  few  charms  for  any  one,  and  little  chance  of 
gaining  acceptance  anywhere. 

Hence  it  has  happened  that  the  ballads  (gatha) 
and  legends  current  about  Gautama  among  Northern 

^  It  is  difficult  to  accept  the  theory  of  those  who  niaiutain  that 
writing  had  not  been  invented. 

C  2 


•*-* 


20     THE  BUDDHA  AS  A  PERSONAL  TEACHER. 

Buddhists,  bristle  with  the  wildest  fancies  and  the  most 
absurd  exaggerations. 

Yet  it  is  not  impossible  to  detect  a  few  scattered 
historical  facts  beneath  stories,  however  childish,  and 
legends,  however  extravagant.  We  shall  not  at  least 
be  far  wrong,  if,  in  attempting  an  outline  of  the 
Buddha's  life,  w^e  begin  by  asserting  that  intense  indi- 
viduality, fervid  earnestness,  and  severe  simplicity  of 
character,  combined  with  singular  beauty  of  counten- 
ance, calm  dignity  of  bearing,  and  above  all,  almost 
superhuman  persuasiveness  of  speech,  were  conspicuous 
in  the  great  Teacher. 

The  earliest  authorities,  however,  never  claim  for 
him  anything  extraordinary  or  suijerhuman  in  regard 
to  external  form.  It  was  only  in  later  times  that  Bud- 
dhist writers  pandered  to  the  superstitions  of  the  people, 
by  describing  the  Buddha  as  possessed  of  various 
miraculous  characteristics  of  mind  and  body.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  of  immense  stature — accordino;  to 
some,  eighteen  feet  high — and  to  have  had  on  his  body 
thirty-two  chief  auspicious  marks  (maha-vyanjana),  re- 
garded as  indications  of  a  Supreme  Lord  and  Universal 
Euler,  eighty  secondary  marks  (anu-vyanjana),  besides 
one  hundred  and  eight  symbols  on  the  sole  of  each  foot, 
and  a  halo  extending  for  six  feet  round  his  person. 

All  that  can  be  said  with  any  degree  of  probability 
about  his  personal  appearance  is,  that  he  was  endowed 
with  certain  qualities,  which  acted  like  a  spell,  or  with 
a  kind  of  irresistible  magnetism,  on  his  hearers.  These 
must  have  formed,  so  to  speak,  the  foundation-stone  on 
which  the  superstructure  of  his  vast  influence  rested. 


BIRTH    AND    DEATH    OF   THE    BUDDHA.  21 

Unhappily,  no  authoritative  Buddhist  scripture  gives 
any  trustworthy  clue  to  the  exact  year  of  the  Buddha's 
birth.  The  traditions  which  refer  back  his  death  to  a 
date  corresponding  to  543  B.C.  are  now  rejected  by 
modern  European  scholars.  Nor  can  we  as  yet  accept 
as  infallible  the  results  of  the  latest  researches,  which 
making  use  of  various  other  data,  such  as  the  inscrip- 
tions on  coins,  rocks,  and  columns,  place  his  death  more 
than  a  century  later.  We  shall  not,  however,  be  far 
wrong  if  we  assert  that  he  was  born  about  the  year 
500  B.C.  at  Kapila-vastu  (now  Bhuila) — a  town  situated 
about  half-way  between  Basti  and  Ajudhya  (Ayodhya) 
in  the  territory  of  Kosala  (the  modern  Oudh,  see  pp.  29, 
48),  about  sixty  miles  from  its  capital  city  Sravasti  (a 
favourite  residence  of  Gautama),  and  about  one  hundred 
miles  north-west  of  Benares,  and  near  the  borders  of 
the  kingdom  of  Magadha  (now  Behar). 

His  father,  named  Suddhodana,  was  a  land-owner  of 
the  tribe  of  the  Sakyas  (a  name  possibly  connected  with 
the  Sanskrit  root  Sak, '  to  be  powerful'),  whose  territory 
in  the  Gorakh-pur  district  extended  from  the  lower 
Nepalese  mountains  to  the  river  Kapti  in  Oudh.  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  the  Sakyas  may  have  been 
originally  a  non-Aryan  tribe,  connected  perhaps  with 
certain  nomad  immigrants  from  Tibet  or  Northern  Asia, 
who  may  have  immigrated  into  India  at  various  periods; 
but  even  if  this  could  be  proved,  it  would  have  to  be 
admitted  that  the  Sakyas  had  become  Aryanized.  It  is 
said  that  the  chief  families  claimed  to  be  Rajputs, 
tracing  back  their  origin  to  Ikshvaku,  the  first  of  the 
Solar  race.     It  appears,  too,  that  though  belonging  to  the 


\ 


2  2  THE    BUDDHA   AS   A   PERSONAL   TEACHEE. 

Kshatriya  caste,  tliey  were  agriculturists,  and  mainly 
engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  rice.  It  is  also  asserted 
that  Sakya  families  were  in  the  habit  of  taking  the  name 
of  the  family  of  the  Brahmans  who  were  their  spiritual 
guides  and  performed  religious  offices  for  them,  and  that 
the  family  of  Suddhodana  took  the  name  Gautama,  that 
is,  descendant  of  the  sage  Gotama.  It  does  not,  how- 
ever, seem  necessary  to  account  for  the  name  in  this 
manner.  It  was  an  auspicious  name,  which  in  ancient 
times  might  have  been  given  to  the  child  of  any  great 
land-owner  as  a  proof  of  orthodoxy,  or  with  the  view, 
perhaps,  of  pleasing  the  Brahmans  and  securing  their 
prayers  and  good  wishes  on  its  behalf. 

The  father  of  the  Founder  of  Buddhism  was  simply 
/  a  chief  of  the  Sakya  tribe — certainly  not  a  king  in  our 
sense  of  the  term — but  rather  a  great  Zamindar  or 
landlord,  whose  territory  was  not  so  large  in  area 
as  Yorkshire.  His  name  Suddhodana,  '  one  possessed 
of  pure  rice,'  probably  indicated  the  occupation  and 
ordinary  food  of  the  peasantry  inhabiting  the  district 
belonging  to  him  and  subject  to  his  authority.  Those 
who  have  travelled  much  in  India  must  often  have 
met  great  land-owners  of  the  Suddhodana  type — men 
to  whom  the  title  Maha-raja  is  given  much  as  '  Lord ' 
is  to  our  aristocracy.  For  example,  the  Maha-raja  of 
Darbhanga  is  probably  a  more  important  personage 
tlian  Gautama's  father  ever  was,  and  his  territory  larger 
than  that  of  Suddhodana  ever  was. 

The  name  Gautama  (in  Pali  spelt  Gotama)  was 
the  personal  name  corresponding  to  that  given  to  all 
children  at  the  name-giving  ceremony.     It  was  not  till 


NAMES    OF   THE    BUDDHA.  23 

liis  supposed  attainment  of  perfect  wisdom  that  Gau- 
tama assumed  the  title  of  Buddha,  or  'the  enUghtened 
one.'  But  from  that  time  forward  this  became  his  re- 
cognized title.  Every  other  name  besides  Gautama  (or 
Gotama),  and  every  other  title  except  Buddha  (or  to- 
gether, Gautama  Buddlia),  are  simply  epithets ;  for 
example,  Sakya-muni,  '  sage  of  the  tribe  of  the  Sakyas;' 
Sakya-sinha,  '  lion  of  the  Sakyas ; '  Sramana  (Samano), 
'the  ascetic;'  Siddhartha,  'one  who  has  fulfilled  the 
object  (of  his  coming);'  Sugata,  'whose  coming  is 
auspicious;'  Tathagata,  'who  comes  and  goes  as  his 
predecessors;'  Bhagavan  (Bhagava),  'the  blessed  lord;' 
Sasta  (Sattha),  'the  Teacher;'  Asarana-sarana,  'Befuge 
of  the  refugeless ; '  Aditya-bandhu,  '  Kinsman  of  the 
Sun;'  Jina, '  conqueror ; '  Maha-vira, '  great  hero  ; '  Maha- 
purusha,  '  great  man ; '  CakravartI,  '  universal  monarch.' 
Devout  Buddhists  call  him  '  Lord  of  the  World,'  '  the 
Lord,'  '  World-honoured  One,'  '  King  of  the  Law,'  '  the 
Jewel,'  etc. ;  and  prefer  to  use  the  titles  rather  than  the 
personal  name  Gautama,  which  is  thought  too  familiar. 

The  names  of  previous  Buddhas,  supposed  to  have 
existed  in  previous  ages,  are  given  at  p.  136. 

Little  of  the  story  of  the  miraculous  birth  of  Buddha 
is  worthy  of  repetition.  Since,  however,  a  white  ele- 
phant is  reckoned  among  the  sacred  objects  of  Bud- 
dhism, as  something  rare  and  precious,  it  is  worth  while 
mentioning  the  fable,  that  when  the  time  came  for  the 
Bodhi-sattva  to  leave  the  Tushita  heaven  (p.  120)  and  be 
born  on  earth  as  Gautama  Buddha,  he  descended  into 
the  womb  of  his  mother  in  the  form  of  a  white  elephant. 
He  was  bom  under  a  Sal  tree  and  the  god  Brahma 


24  THE    BUDDHA    AS    A    PERSONAL   TEACHER, 

received  him  from  his  mother's  side.  His  mother,  Maya, 
died  seven  days  afterwards,  and  the  infant  was  com- 
mitted to  her  sister  (Maha-prajapati),  a  second  wife  of 
Suddhodana. 

It  is  not  related  of  Gautama  that,  as  he  grew  up, 
any  efforts  were  made  to  imbue  him  with  sacred 
learning ;  though,  as  a  Kshatriya,  he  was  privileged  to 
receive  instruction  in  certain  portions  of  the  Veda. 

Nor  are  we  told  of  him  that  as  a  Kshatriya  he  was 
trained  to  the  profession  of  a  soldier.  It  is  more  pro- 
bable, that  his  love  of  contemplation  developed  itself 
very  early,  and  that  from  a  desire  to  humour  this  not 
uncommon  Oriental  propensity,  he  was  allowed  to  pass 
most  of  his  time  in  the  open  air. 

There  is  a  weU-known  legend,  which  relates  how 
Gautama's  relations  came  in  a  body  to  his  father  and 
complained  that  the  youth's  deficiency  in  martial  and 
athletic  exercises  would  incapacitate  him,  on  reaching 
manhood,  from  taking  part  in  warhke  expeditions.  This 
might  be  reckoned  among  the  few  trustworthy  historical 
incidents,  were  the  story  not  marred  by  the  legendary 
addition,  that  on  a  day  of  trial  being  fixed,  the  youth, 
without  any  previous  practice,  and  of  course  to  the 
surprise  of  all  present,  proved  his  superiority  in  archery 
and  in  '  the  twelve  arts.' 

One  statement  may  certainly  be  accepted  without 
much  qualification.  It  is  said  that  Gautama  was  made 
to  marry  early,  according  to  the  universal  custom 
throughout  India  in  the  present  day.  No  son  of  any 
respectable  person  in  modern  times  could  remain  un- 
married at  the  age  of  sixteen  or  seventeen,  without,  so 


STORY   OF    THE   FOUR    VISIONS.  25 

to  speak,  tarDishing  the  family  escutcheon,  and  exposmg 
the  youth  himself  to  a  serious  social  stigma,  likely  to 
cling  to  him  in  after-life.  In  ancient  times  marriage  was 
equally  universal,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  among  Kshatriyas  it  was  delayed  to  a  much  later 
period  of  life. 

No  doubt,  therefore,  the  future  Buddha  had  at  least 
one  wife  (whose  name  was  Yasodhara,  though  often 
called  Eahula-mata,  '  Eahula's  mother '),  and  probably 
at  least  one  son,  named  Bahula.  It  is  said  that  this 
son  was  not  born  till  his  father  was  twenty-nine  years 
of  age,  or  not  tiU  the  time  when  a  sense  of  the  vanity 
of  all  human  aims,  and  a  resolution  to  abandon  all 
worldly  ties,  and  a  longing  to  enter  upon  a  monastic  life 
had  begun  to  take  possession  of  bis  father's  mind. 

The  story  of  the  four  visions,  which  led  to  his  final 
renunciation  of  the  world,  is  profusely  overlaid  with 
fanciful  hyperbole,  but,  however  slight  the  basis  of 
fact  on  which  it  may  reasonably  be  held  to  rest,  it  is  too 
picturesque  and  interesting  to  be  passed  over  without 
notice.  I  therefore  here  abridge  the  account  given  in  Mr. 
Beal's  translation  of  the  Chinese  version  of  the  Abhi- 
nishkramana-sutra,  varying  (for  the  sake  of  brevity)  the 
phraseology,  but  retaining  the  exjoression  '  prince ' : — 

One  day  the  prince  Gautama  resolved  to  visit  the 
gardens  in  the  neighbourhood  of  his  father's  city,  desir- 
ing to  examine  the  beautiful  trees  and  flowers. 

Then  there  appeared  before  his  eyes  in  one  of  the 
streets  the  form  of  a  decrepid  old  man,  his  skin 
shrivelled,  his  head  bald,  his  teeth  gone,  his  body 
infirm  and  bent.     A  stafi"  supported  his  tottering  limbs, 


26     THE  BUDDHA  AS  A  PERSONAL  TEACHER. 

as  he  stood  right  across  the  path  of  the  prince's  advanc- 
ing chariot. 

Seeing  this  aged  person,  Siddhartha  inquired  of  his  cha- 
rioteer:— 'What  human  form  is  this,  so  miserable  and  so 
distressing,  the  like  of  which  I  have  never  seen  before  V 

The  charioteer  replied : — '  This  is  what  is  called  an 
old  man.' 

The  prince  again  inquired  : — '  And  what  is  the  exact 
meaning  of  this  expression  "  old  "  V  \ 

The  charioteer  answered  : — '  Old  age  implies  the  loss 
of  bodily  power,  decay  of  the  vital  functions,  and  failure 
of  mind  and  memory.  This  poor  man  before  you  is  old 
and  approaching  his  end.' 

Then  asked  the  prince  : — ''  Is  this  law  universal  1 ' 

'  Yes,'  he  replied,  'this  is  the  common  lot  of  all  living 
creatures.     All  that  is  born  must  die.' 

Soon  afterwards  another  strange  sight  presented 
itself — a  sick  man,  worn  by  disease  and  suffering,  pale 
and  miserable,  scarcely  able  to  draw  his  breath,  was 
seen  tottering  on  the  road. 

Then  the  prince  inquired  of  his  charioteer  : — 'Who  is 
this  unhappy  being  1 ' 

The  charioteer  replied  : — '  This  is  a  sick  man,  and 
such  sickness  is  common  to  all.' 

Soon  afterwards  there  passed  before  them  a  corpse, 
borne  on  a  bier. 

Then  asked  the  prince: — 'Who  is  this  borne  onwards 
on  his  bed,  covered  with  strangely-coloured  garments, 
surrounded  by  people  weeping  and  lamenting  'i ' 

'  This,'  replied  the  charioteer,  '  is  called  a  dead  body ; 
he  has  ended  his   life;    he  has  no  further  beauty  of 


STORY    OF   THE   FOUR    VISIONS.  27 

form,  and  no  desires  of  any  kind ;  he  is  one  with  the 
stones  and  the  felled  tree  ;  he  is  like  a  ruined  wall,  or 
fallen  leaf;  no  more  shall  he  see  his  father  or  mother, 
brother  or  sister,  or  other  relatives ;  his  body  is  dead, 
and  your  body  also  must  come  to  this.' 

Next  day  on  his  going  out  by  a  different  gate  there 
appeared  advancing  with  measured  steps  a  man  with  a 
shaven  crown,  and  monk's  robe — his  right  shoulder  bare, 
a  religious  staff  in  his  right  hand,  and  a  mendicant's 
alms-bowl  in  his  left. 

'Who  is  this,'  the  prince  inquired,  'proceeding  with 
slow  and  dignified  steps,  looking  neither  to  the  right 
hand  nor  to  the  left,  absorbed  in  thought,  with  shaven 
head  and  garments  of  reddish  colour  1 ' 

'This  man,'  said  the  charioteer,  'devotes  himself  to 
charity,  and  restrains  his  appetites  and  his  bodily 
desires.  He  hurts  nobody,  but  does  good  to  all,  and 
is  full  of  sympathy  for  all.' 

Then  the  prince  asked  the  man  himself  to  give  an 
account  of  his  own  condition. 

He  answered  : — '  I  am  called  a  homeless  ascetic  ;  I 
have  forsaken  the  world,  relatives,  and  friends ;  I  seek 
deliverance  for  myself  and  desire  the  salvation  of  all 
creatures,  and  I  do  harm  to  none.' 

After  hearing  these  words,  the  prince  went  to  Ijis 
father  and  said,  '  I  wish  to  become  a  wandering  ascetic 
(parivrajika)  and  to  seek  Nirvana ;  all  worldly  things, 
0  king  !  are  changeable  and  transitory.' 

Such  is  an  epitome  of  the  legendary  story  of  the 
'  four  visionary  appearances,'  so  called  because  they  are 
supposed  to  have  been  divine  visions  or  appearances. 


28  THE    BUDDHA    AS   A   PERSONAL   TEACHER. 

miraculously  produced.  The  remainder  of  the  legen- 
dary life  of  Gautama  Buddha  is  interesting  and  here 
and  there  not  without  some  historical  value,  and  por- 
tions of  it  I  now  add  in  an  abridged  form. 

Very  shortly  after  the  occurrences  just  described, 
Gautama  receives  intelligence  of  the  birth  of  his  son 
Rahula.  This  is  the  first  momentous  crisis  of  his  life, 
and  Gautama  remains  for  a  long  time  lost  in  pro- 
found thought.  He  sees  in  his  child  the  strongest  of 
all  fetters,  binding  him  to  family  and  home.  But  his 
mind  is  made  up.  He  must  fly  at  once,  or  be  for  ever 
held  in  bondage.  Around  him  gather  the  beautiful 
women  of  his  father's  household,  striving  by  their 
blandishments  to  divert  him  from  his  purpose ;  but 
in  vain.  He  seeks  the  chamber  of  his  wife,  and  finds 
her  asleep  with  her  hand  on  the  head  of  his  infant 
son.  He  longs  for  a  last  embrace ;  but  fearing  to 
arouse  her  suspicions  hurries  away.  Outside,  his 
favourite  horse  is  waiting  to  aid  his  flight.  He  ac- 
complishes the  first  stage  of  what  Buddhists  call  with 
pride  the  Mahabhinishkramana,  'the  great  going  forth 
from  home ; '  but  not  without  overcomino-  other  still 
more  formidable  trials.  For  Mara,  the  evil  deity  who 
tempts  men  to  indulge  their  passions  (see  p.  120),  makes 
himself  visible,  and  promises  the  prince  all  the  glories  of 
empire  if  he  will  return  to  the  pleasures  of  worldly  life. 

Finding  all  his  allurements  disregarded,  Mara  alters 
his  method  of  attack;  he  fills  the  air  with  mighty 
thunderings,  and  creates  on  the  road  before  the  youthful 
fugitive's  eyes  apparitions  of  torrents,  lofty  mountains, 
and   blazing   conflagrations.     But   nothing   alarms   or 


LIFE    AT  RAJA-GRIHA.  29 

deters  him.  'I  would  rather/  he  exclaims,  'be  torn 
to  pieces  limb  by  limb,  or  be  burnt  in  a  fiery  furnace, 
or  be  ground  to  pieces  by  a  falling  mountain  than 
forego  my  fixed  purpose  for  one  single  instant/ 

Arrived  at  a  safe  distance  from  his  father's  territory, 
he  exchanges  garments  with  a  passing  beggar,  cuts  off  his 
own  hair  with  a  sword,  and  assumes  the  outward  aspect 
and  character  of  a  wandering  ascetic.  The  hair  does 
not  fall  to  the  ground  but  is  taken  up  to  the  Trayas- 
trinsas  heaven  (p.  120),  and  worshipped  by  the  gods. 

His  first  halting-place  is  Eaja-griha  (now  Raj-gir), 
the  chief  city  of  Magadha,  which,  with  Kosala  (Oudh, 
pp.  21,  48),  afterwards  became  the  holy  land  of  Bud- 
dhism. There  he  attaches  himself  as  a  disciple  to  two 
Brahmans  named  Alara  (in  Sanskrit  Arada,  with  epithet 
Kalapa  or  Kalama)  and  Uddaka  (Udraka,  also  written 
Kudraka,  and  called  Rama-putta,  Maha-vagga  I.  6.  3), 
who  imbue  him  with  their  own  philosophical  tenets 
and  theory  of  salvation.  Sufficient  evidence  exists  to 
warrant  a  belief  in  this  part  of  the  story. 

No  place  in  India  abounds  in  more  interesting 
Buddhistic  remains  than  Eaja-griha  (about  40  miles 
south-east  of  Patna),  proving  that  it  was  one  of  the  most 
sacred  places  of  Buddhism,  consecrated  by  some  of  its 
most  cherished  associations.  Its  Pali  name  is  Eaja- 
gaha.  It  may  be  conjectured  that  the  connexion  between 
the  metaphysics  of  Buddhism  and  those  of  Brahmanism 
was  due  to  Gautama's  intercourse  with  the  Brahmans 
of  this  district,  and  to  the  ideas  he  thus  imbibed  at  the 
earliest  stage  of  his  career. 

But  to  resume  our  story.     Gautama  fails  to  find  in 


30  THE   BUDDHA    AS   A   PERSONAL  TEACHER. 

Brahmanical  philosophy  that  rest  and  peace  for  which 
his  soul  was  craving  when  he  left  his  home. 

Still  there  was  another  way  of  emancipation  and 
union  with  the  Universal  Soul,  taught  by  the  Brahmans. 
This  was  the  way  of  Tapas\  or  self-inflicted  bodily  pain 
and  austerity. 

From  the  earUest  times  a  favourite  doctrine  of 
Brahmanism  has  been,  that  self-inflicted  bodily  sufier- 
ing  is  before  all  things  efficacious  for  the  accumula- 
tion of  religious  merit,  for  the  acquirement  of  super- 
natural powers,  and  for  the  spirit's  release  from  the 
bondage  of  transmigration  and  its  re-absorption  into 
the  One  Universal  Spirit. 

Among  other  forms  of  self-inflicted  pain,  religious 
devotees  (Tapasvis)  sometimes  went  through  the  process 
of  sitting  all  day  long  unmoved  during  the  hottest 
months  on  a  prepared  platform  or  plot  of  ground, 
surrounded  by  five  fires,  or  by  four  blazing  fires,  with 
the  burning  sun  above  their  heads  as  a  fifth  ^.  Even 
gods  (and  notably  Siva)  are  described  as  mortifying 
themselves  by  bodily,  austerities  [tapas),  so  as  not  to 
be  outdone  by  men ;  for  according  to  the  theory  of 
Hinduism,  the  gods  themselves  might  be  supplanted 
and   even   ousted    from   their    rank    and    position   as 

^  Tapas  is  a  Sansl<rit  word,  derived  from  the  root  tap,  '  to  burn, 
torment.'  It  is  connected  with  Lat.  tepeo,  Gi'eek  BdnTo),  wliich  last 
originally  denoted  '  to  burn,'  not  '  to  bury'  dead  bodies.  Tapas 
ought  not  to  be  translated  by  '  penance,'  unless  that  word  is  restricted 
to  the  sense  poena,  '  pain.' 

^  Such  men  are  called  Panca-tapas  (Manu  YI.  23).  A  good  repre- 
sentation of  this  form  of  Tapas  may  be  seen  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Indian  Institute,  Oxford. 


SEXENNIAL   FAST.  3 1 

divinities  by  the  omnipotence  acquirable  by  human 
devotees  througli  a  protracted  endurance  of  severe  bodily 
suffering. 

Hence  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  it  recorded  of 
Gautama  Buddha,  that  seeking  in  vain  for  rest  in  the 
teaching  of  Brahmanical  philosophy,  and  eager  to  try 
the  effect  of  a  course  of  self-mortification,  he  wandered 
forth  from  Eaja-griha  to  a  wood  in  the  district  of  Gaya, 
called  Uruvilva  (or  Uruvela). 

There,  in  company  with  five  other  ascetics,  he  began 
his  celebrated  sexennial  fast.  Sitting  down  with  his 
legs  folded  under  him  on  a  raised  seat  in  a  place  un- 
sheltered from  sun,  wind,  rain,  dew,  and  cold,  he 
gradually  reduced  his  daily  allowance  of  food  to  a 
single  grain  of  rice.  Then  holding  his  breath,  he 
harassed  and  macerated  his  body,  but  all  in  vain.  No 
peace  of  mind  came,  and  no  divine  enlightenment.  He 
became  convinced  of  his  own  folly  in  resorting  to 
bodily  austerity  as  a  means  of  attaining  supreme  en- 
lightenment, and  delivering  himself  from  the  evils  and 
sufferings  of  life. 

Bousing  himself,  as  if  from  a  troubled  dream,  he 
took  food  and  nourishment  in  a  natural  way,  thereby 
incurring  the  temporary  disapproval  of  his  five  com- 
panions in  self-mortification.  Then,  when  sufficiently 
refreshed,  he  moved  away  to  another  spot  in  the  same 
district.  There,  under  the  shelter  of  a  sacred  fig-tree 
(Asvattha,  Ficus  religiosa,  known  as  the  Pippala  or 
Pipal),  in  a  village,  afterwards  called  Buddha-Gaya, 
he  gave  himself  up  to  higher  and  higher  forms  of  medi- 
tation (Jhana  =  Dhyana).     In  this  he  merely  conformed 


2,2  THE   BUDDHA    AS   A    PERSONAL   TEACHER. 

to  the  Hindu  Yoga, — a  method  of  attaining  mystic 
union  witli  the  Deity,  which  although  not  then  for- 
mulated into  a  system,  was  already  in  vogue  among 
the  Brfihmans.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
Dharana,  Dhyana  (see  p.  209),  and  Samadhi  of  the 
li^oga  were  resorted  to,  even  in  Gautama's  time,  as  a 
means  for  the  attainment  of  perfect  spiritual  illumina- 
tion, as  well  as  of  final  absorption  in  the  Deity. 

In  Manu  YI.  72  it  is  said  : — 'Let  him  purge  himself 
from  all  taints  (doshan)  by  suppression  of  breath,  from 
sin  by  restraints  of  thought  (dharanabhih),  from  sensual 
attachments  by  control,  and  from  unspiritual  qualities 
by  meditation  (dhyanena).' 

In  the  later  work  called  Bhagavad-gita  (see  p.  95  of 
this  volume)  it  is  declared: — 'holding  his  body,  head, 
and  neck  quite  immovable,  seated  on  a  firm  seat  in  a 
pure  spot  with  Kusa  grass  around,  the  devotee  (Yogi) 
should  look  only  at  the  tip  of  his  nose,  and  should 
meditate  on  the  Supreme  Being'  (YI.  11,  12).  Further 
on  he  is  directed  to  meditate  so  profoundly  as  to  think 
about  nothing  whatever  (YI.  25). 

The  very  Gayatri  or  ancient  Yedic  prayer  (Big-veda 
III.  62.  10,  see  p.  78  of  this  volume) — which  is  to 
Hindus  what  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  to  Christians,  and  is 
still  repeated  by  millions  of  our  Indian  fellow-subjects 
at  their  daily  devotions  —  was  originally  an  act  of 
meditation,  performed  with  the  very  object  Gautama 
had  in  view — supreme  enlightenment  of  mind  : — '  Let 
us  meditate  (Dhimahi,  root  dliyai)  on  the  excellent  glory 
of  the  divine  vivifying  Sun,  may  he  enlighten  our 
understandings.'     Even  the  selection  of  a  seat  under 


TEMPTATION   BY   MAE  A.  33 

an  Asvattha  tree  was   in   keeping  with  Brahmanical 
ideas  (see  'Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  335). 

The  first  result,  however,  of  his  engaging  in  abstract 
meditation,  was  that  he  seemed  to  himself  to  be  as  far 
as  ever  from  the  emancipation  which  was  the  one  aim 
of  his  great  renunciation.  Why  not  then  return  to  the 
world?  Wliy  not  indulge  again  in  the  pleasures  of 
sense  ?  Why  not  go  back  to  home,  wife,  and  child  ? 
Thoughts  of  this  kind  passed  through  his  mind,  while 
all  his  old  aftections  and  feelings  seemed  to  revive  with 
tenfold  intensity.  Then  on  one  particular  night, 
during  this  mental  struggle,  Mara,  the  Destroyer  and 
personification  of  carnal  desire,  seized  his  opportunity. 
The  spirit  of  evil  had  bided  his  time ;  had  waited  to 
assail  the  sage  at  the  right  moment,  when  protracted 
self-mortification  had  done  its  work — when  with  ex- 
hausted strength  he  had  little  power  of  resistance. 

It  is  certainly  remarkable  that  a  great  struggle  be- 
tween good  and  evil,  right  and  wrong,  truth  and 
error,  knowledge  and  ignorance,  light  and  darkness, 
is  recognized  in  all  religious  systems,  however  false. 
(See  a  notable  allusion  to  this  in  Saiikara's  Commentary 
to  Chandogya  Upanishad,  p.  26,  U.  2-8.) 

The  legendary  description  of  the  Buddha's  temptation, 
and  of  the  assault  made  upon  him  by  Mara  (the  deadly 
spirit  of  sensuous  desire  ^),  and  by  all  his  troop  of 
attendants,  is  so  interesting  and  curious,  notwith- 
standing its  extravagance,  that  I  here  abridge  it : — 

Fiends  and  demons  swarmed  about  him  in  the  form 

^  According  to  Dr.  Oldenberg,  the  Miityu  of  the  Kathopanishad. 

D 


34  THE   BUDDHA    AS   A    PERSONAL   TEACHER. 

of  awful  monsters,  furies,  vampires,  hobgoblins,  armed 
to  the  teeth  with  every  implement  of  destruction. 
Their  million  faces  were  frightful  to  behold,  their  limbs 
encircled  by  myriads  of  serpents,  their  heads  enveloped 
in  a  blaze  of  fire.  They  surrounded  the  saint  and 
assailed  him  in  a  thousand  different  ways.  Missiles 
of  all  kinds  were  hurled  against  him  ;  poison  and  fire 
were  showered  over  him — but  the  poison  changed  into 
flowers,  the  fire  formed  a  halo  round  his  head. 

The  bafEed  evil  one  now  shifted  his  ground.  He 
summoned  his  sixteen  enchanting  daughters,  and  sent 
them  to  display  their  charms  in  the  presence  of  the 
youthful  saint.  But  the  resolute  young  ascetic  was 
not  to  be  lured  by  their  wiles.  He  remained  calm 
and  impassive,  and  with  a  stern  face  rebuked  the 
maidens  for  their  boldness,  forcing  them  to  retire  dis- 
comfited and  disgraced. 

Other  forms  of  temptation  followed,  and  the  debili- 
tated ascetic  s  strength  seemed  to  be  giving  way.  But 
this  was  merely  the  crisis.  After  rising  to  higher  and 
higher  stages  of  abstract  meditation  at  the  end  of  a 
long  night  he  shook  off  his  foe.  The  victory  was 
won,  and  the  light  of  true  knowledge  broke  upon  his 
mind.  A  legend  relates  that  in  the  first  night-watch 
he  gained  a  knowledge  of  all  his  previous  existences ; 
in  the  second — of  all  present  states  of  being  ;  in  the 
third — of  the  chain  of  causes  and  effects  (p.  102)  ;  and 
at  the  dawn  of  day  he  knew  all  things. 

The  dawn  on  which  this  remarkable  struggle  ter- 
minated was  the  birthday  of  Buddhism.  Gautama  was 
at  that  time  about  thirty-five  years  of  age.     It  was 


THE   BODHI-TEEE.  35 

then,  and  not  till  then,  that  his  Bodhi-sattvaship  (see 
p.  135)  ended  and  he  gained  a  right  to  the  title  Buddha, 
*  the  Enlightened.'  No  wonder  that  the  tree  under 
which  he  sat  became  celebrated  as  'the  tree  of 
knowledge  and  enlightenment.'  It  is  remarkable,  too, 
that  just  as  the  night  on  which  the  Buddha  attained 
perfect  enlightenment  is  the  most  sacred  night  with 
Buddhists,  so  the  Bodhi-tree  (in  familiar  language, 
Bo-tree)  is  their  most  sacred  symbol — a  symbol  as  dear 
to  Buddhists  as  the  Cross  is  to  Christians. 

And  what  was  this  true  knowledge,  evolved  out  of 
a  mind  sublimated  by  intense  meditation'? 

This  is,  perhaps,  the  strangest  point  of  all  in  this 
strange  story.  It  was  after  all  a  mere  partial  one-sided 
truth — the  outcome  of  a  single  hne  of  thought,  dwelt 
upon  with  morbid  intensity,  to  the  exclusion  of  every 
other  line  of  thought  which  might  have  modified  and 
balanced  it.  It  was  an  ultra-pessimistic  view  of  the 
miseries  of  life,  and  a  determination  to  ignore  all  its 
counterbalancing  joys.  It  was  the  doctrine  that  this 
present  life  is  only  one  link  in  a  chain  of  countless 
transmigrations — that  existence  of  all  kinds  involves 
suffering,  and  that  such  suffering  can  only  be  got  rid 
of  by  self-restraint  and  the  extinction  of  desires,  espe- 
cially of  the  desire  for  continuity  of  personal  existence. 

For  let  it  be  made  clear  at  the  outset,  that  whatever 
may  be  said  of  the  Christian-like  self-renunciation 
enjoined  by  the  Buddhist  code  of  morality,  the  only 
self  it  aims  at  renouncing  is  the  self  of  personality,  and 
the  chief  self-love  it  deprecates  is  the  self-love  which 
consists  in  craving  for  continuous  individual  life. 

D  2 


36  THE   BUDDHA    AS    A   PERSONAL   TEACHER. 

To  those  who  have  never  travelled  or  resided  much 
in  the  East,  indulgence  in  such  a  morbid  form  of  pes- 
simism, under  glowing  skies  and  amid  bright  surround- 
ings, may  seem  almost  an  impossibility.  But  those  who 
know  India  by  personal  experience  are  aware  that  its 
climate  is  not  conducive  to  optimistic  views  of  life, 
and  that  even  in  the  present  day  men  of  the  Buddha 
type,  w^ho  seek  in  various  ways  to  impress  their  pessi- 
mistic theories  of  existence  on  their  fellow-men,  are 
not  uncommon. 

In  the  course  of  my  travels  I  frequently  met  ascetics 
who  had  given  up  family  and  friends,  and  were  leading 
a  life  of  morose  seclusion,  and  pretended  meditation, 
undergoing  long  courses  of  bodily  mortification.  Nay, 
I  have  even  seen  men  who,  to  prove  their  utter  contempt 
for  the  pleasures  of  worldly  existence,  and  to  render 
themselves  fit  for  the  extinction  of  all  personality  by 
absorption  into  the  Universal  Soul,  have  sat  in  one 
posture,  or  held  up  one  arm  for  years,  or  allowed  them- 
selves no  bed  but  a  bed  of  spikes,  no  shelter  but  the 
foliage  of  trees ^  Gautama's  course  of  protracted  cogi- 
tation therefore  had  in  it  nothing  peculiar  or  original. 

Nor  need  we  doubt  that  certain  historical  facts  underlie 
the  legendary  narrative.  We  cannot  admit  with  the 
learned  Senart  and  Kern  that  the  life  of  Gautama  w'as 
based  on  a  mere  solar  myth.  To  us  it  is  more  difficult 
not  to  believe  than  to  believe  that  there  lived  in  the 
fifth  century  B.C.  the  youthful  son  of  a  petty  Kaja 
or  land-owner  in   Oudh,  distinguished  from  ordinaiy 


^  In  the  same  way  the  Cibterciau  monks  of  Fountain's  Abbey  lived 
under  certain  trees  while  the  Abbey  was  building. 


THE   BUDDHA    AND   MUHAMMAD    COMPARED.  37 

men  by  many  remarkable  qualities  of  mind  and  body — 
notably  by  a  thoughtful  and  contemplative  disposition  ; 
that  he  became  impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  vanity  of 
all  earthly  aims,  and  of  the  suffering  caused  by  disease 
and  death ;  that  he  often  said  to  himself,  '  Life  is  but  a 
troubled  dream,  an  incubus,  a  nightmare,'  or,  like  the 
Jewish  sage  of  old,  'All  the  days  of  man  are  sorrow,' 
'  Man  walketh  in  a  vain  shadow  and  disquieteth  himself 
in  vain;'  and  that  like  many  other  of  the  world's  philo- 
sophers, instead  of  acquiescing  in  the  state  of  things 
around  him,  and  striving  to  make  the  best  of  them,  or 
to  improve  them,  he  took  refuge  from  the  troubles  of 
life  in  abandoning  all  its  ties,  renouncing  all  its  joys, 
and  suppressing  all  its  affections  and  desires. 

And  ao-ain,  it  is  more  difficult  not  to  believe  than  to 
believe  that  in  such  a  man  introspection  and  absti- 
nence, protracted  for  many  years,  induced  a  condition  of 
mind  favourable  to  ecstatic  visions,  which  were  easily 
mistaken  for  flashes  of  inner  enlightenment. 

We  know,  indeed,  that  eleven  centuries  later  another 
great  thinker  arose  among  the  Semitic  races  in  Western 
Asia,  who  went  through  the  same  kind  of  mental 
struggle,  and  that  Muhammad,  like  Gautama,  having 
by  his  long  fasts  and  austerities  brought  himself  into  a 
highly  wrought  condition  of  the  nervous  system,  became 
a  fanatical  believer  in  the  reality  of  his  own  delusions 
and  in  his  own  divine  commission  as  a  teacher. 

But  the  parallel  between  the  Buddha  and  Muhammad 
cannot  be  carried  on  much  further.  And  indeed,  in 
point  of  fact,  no  two  characters  could  be  more  different. 
For  the  Buddha  never  claimed  to  be  the  channel  of 


38  THE    BUDDHA    AS    A    PERSONAL    TEACHER. 

a  supernatural  revelation ;  never  represented  the  know- 
ledge that  burst  on  his  mind  as  springing  from  any  but 
an  internal  source ;  never  taught  that  a  divine  force 
operating  from  without  compelled  him  to  communicate 
that  knowledge  to  mankind ;  never  dreamed  of  propa- 
gating that  knowledge  to  others  by  compulsion,  much 
less  by  the  sword.  On  the  contrary,  he  always  main- 
tained that  the  only  revelation  he  had  received  was  an 
illumination  from  within — due  entirelj^  to  his  own 
intuitions,  assisted  by  his  reasoning  powers  and  by  severe 
purgatorial  discipline  protracted  through  countless  pre- 
vious births  in  every  variety  of  bodily  form. 

But  how  did  this  internal  self-enlightenment^ — the 
great  distinguishing  feature  of  Buddhism — first  find 
expression  1  It  is  said  that  the  first  words  uttered  by 
the  Buddha  at  the  momentous  crisis  when  true  know- 
ledge burst  upon  him,  were  to  the  following  effect : — 

'  Through  countless  births  have  I  wandered,  seeking 
but  not  discovering  (anibbisan)  the  maker  of  this  my 
mortal  dwelling-house  (gaha-karaka),  and  still  again 
and  again  have  birth  and  life  and  pain  returned.  But 
now  at  lenojth  art  thou  discovered,  thou  builder  of 
this  house  (of  flesh).  No  longer  shalt  thou  rear  a 
house  for  me.  Eafters  and  beams  are  shattered  and 
with  destruction  of  Desire  (Tanha)  deliverance  from 
repeated  life  is  gained  at  last'  (Dhamma-pada  153, 
1 54,  Sumahgala  46). 

^  The  Bhagavad-glta  (V.  28)  asserts: — 'The  sage  (Yogi)  who  is 
interna'ly  happy,  internally  at  peace,  and  internally  illumined,  attains 
extinction  in  Brahma.'  This  is  pure  Buddhism  if  we  substitute 
Cessation  of  individual  existence  for  Brahma. 


PROCEEDINGS    AFTER   ENLIGHTENMENT.  39 

Contrast  with  these  first  utterances  of  Gautama 
Buddha  the  first  words  of  Jesus  Christ : — 

'  Wist  ye  not  that  I  must  be  about  My  Father's 
business  % '  (St.  Luke  ii.  49.) 

The  Buddha's  first  exclamations,  as  well  as  the  account 
of  his  subsequent  sayings  and  doings,  are  the  more 
worthy  of  credit  as  taken  from  the  Southern  Canon. 

The  Maha-vagga  (I.  i)  tells  us  that  after  attaining 
complete  intelligence,  the  Buddha  sat  cross-legged  on 
the  ground  under  the  Bodhi-tree  for  seven  days,  ab- 
sorbed in  meditation  and  enjoying  the  bliss  of  enlighten- 
ment. At  the  end  of  that  period,  during  the  first  three 
watches  of  the  night,  he  fixed  his  mind  on  the  causes 
of  existence.  Then  having  thought  out  the  law  of 
causation  (p.  102),  he  exclaimed:  'When  the  laws  of 
being  become  manifest  to  the  earnest  thinker,  his  doubts 
vanish,  and,  likB  the  Sun,  he  dispels  the  hosts  of  Mara.' 

Next  he  meditated  for  another  seven  days  under 
a  banyan  tree,  called  the  tree  of  goat-herds  (aja-pala). 
It  was  there  that  a  haughty  Brahman  accosted  him 
with  the  question,  '  Who  is  a  true  Brahman  % '  and  was 
told,  '  One  free  from  evil  and  pride  ;  self- restrained, 
learned,  and  pure.' 

Then  he  meditated  under  another  tree  for  a  third 
period  of  seven  days.  There  the  serpent  (Naga) 
Mucalinda  (or  Mucilinda)  coiled  his  body  round  the 
Buddha,  and  formed  a  canopy  to  protect  him  from  the 
raging  of  a  storm — this  being  one  of  the  trials  he  had 
to  go  through.  When  it  was  over  the  Buddha  ex- 
claimed, 'Happy  is  the  seclusion  of  the  satisfied  man 
(tushta)  who  has  learned  and  seen  the  truth.' 


40  THE    BUDDHA    AS    A   PERSONAL   TEACHER. 

A  fourth  period  of  meditation  was  passed  under  the 
tree  Kajayatana,  making  four  times  seven  days.  May  not 
these  symbolize  the  four  stnges  of  meditation  (p.  209)  1 
Later  legends,  however,  reckon  seven  times  seven  days. 

Durins:  the  whole  of  the  interval  between  the  first 
acquisition  of  knowledge  and  the  setting  forth  to 
proclaim  it,  the  Buddha  fasted,  being  too  elated  to  seek 
food,  and  only  once  receiving  it  from  two  merchants, 
named  Tapussa  (Trapusha)  and  Bhallika.  These  be- 
came his  first  lay-reverers  (p.  89)  by  repeating  the 
double  formula  of  reverence  for  the  Buddha  and  for  his 
doctrine  (the  Sangha  not  being  then  instituted,  Maha-v° 
I.  4.  5).  A  later  legend  relates  that  they  received  in 
return  eight  of  his  hairs  which  they  preserved  as  relics. 

In  connexion  with  the  legend,  of  a  forty-nine  days' 
fast,  I  may  mention  that  an  ancient  carving  of  Gautama 
was  pointed  out  to  me  at  Buddha-Gaya,  tvhich  represents 
him  as  holding  a  bowl  of  rice-milk  divided  into  forty- 
nine  portions,  one  for  each  day. 

With  these  legends  we  may  contrast  the  simple  Gospel 
narrative  of  Christ's  forty  days'  fast  in  the  wilderness. 

The  Buddha's  first  resolution  to  come  forth  from 
his  seclusion  and  proclaim  his  gospel  to  mankind  is  of 
course  a  great  epoch  with  all  Buddhists. 

And  here  it  should  be  observed,  that,  strictly,  accord- 
ing to  Gautama's  own  teaching  he  ought  to  have  ceased 
from  all  action  on  arriving  at  perfect  enlightenment. 
For  had  he  not  attained  the  great  object  of  his  ambition 
— the  end  of  all  his  struggles — the  goal  of  all  his  efforts 
— carried  on  through  hundreds  of  existences  ?  He  had, 
therefore,  no  more  lives  to  lead,  no  more  misery  to 


FIKST    TEACHING    AT    BENARES.  4I 

undergo.  In  short  lie  had  achieved  the  siimmum 
bonum  of  all  true  Buddhists — the  extinction  of  the 
fires  of  passions  and  desires — and  had  only  to  enjoy  the 
well-earned  peace  (nirvriti)  of  complete  Nirvana.  Yet 
the  love  of  his  fellow-men  impelled  him  to  action 
(pravritti).  In  fact  it  was  characteristic  of  a  supreme 
Buddha  that  he  should  belie,  by  his  own  activity  and 
compassionate  feelings,  the  utter  apathy  and  indifference 
to  which  his  own  doctrines  logically  led  (p.  128). 

But  he  did  not  carry  out  his  benevolent  design  with- 
out going  through  another  course  of  temptation  (which 
it  is  usual  to  compare  with  the  temptation  of  Christ). 
Evil  thouD^hts  arose  in  his  mind,  and  these  were 
suggested,  according  to  later  legends,  by  Mara  (p.  33), 
thus: — 'With  great  pains,  blessed  one,  hast  thou  ac- 
quired this  doctrine  (dharma).  Why  proclaim  it  ? 
Beings  lost  in  desires  and  lusts  will  not  understand  it. 
Kemain  in  quietude.     Enjoy  Nirvana'  (Maha-v°  I.  5.  3). 

To  counteract  these  malevolent  suggestions,  the  god 
Brahma  Sahampati  (Pali  Sahampati,  p.  2  co)  presented 
himself  and  exclaimed  : — 'Arise,  0  spotless  one,  open 
the  gate  of  Nirvana.  Arise,  look  down  on  the  world  lost 
in  suffering.    Arise,  wander  forth,  preach  the  doctrine.' 

First  the  Buddha  thought  of  his  two  teachers,  Alara 
and  Uddaka  (p.  29),  but  found  they  were  dead. 
Next  he  thought  of  the  five  ascetics  whom  he  had 
offended  by  his  abandonment  of  the  method  of  gain- 
ing true  knowledge  through  painful  austerities.  They 
were  at  that  time  prosecuting  their  bodily  mortifications 
at  Benares  in  the  Deer-park  called  Isipatana.  It  was 
only  natural  that  the  Buddha  should  think  of  wending 


42  THE    BUDDHA   AS    A    PERSONAL   TEACHER. 

his  way  in  the  first  instance  to  Benares,  even  if  special 
considerations  had  not  drawn  him  there ;  for  that  city 
was  the  great  centre  of  Eastern  thought  and  life,  the 
Indian  Athens,  where  all  peculiar  .doctrines  were  most 
likely  to  gain  a  hearing. 

On  his  way  thither,  Upaka,  a  member  of  the  Ajivaka 
sect  of  naked  ascetics,  met  him  and  inquired  why  his 
countenance  was  so  bright  (parisuddha)  ?  He  replied,  *  I 
am  the  all-subduer,  the  all-wise,  the  stainless,  the  highest 
teacher,  the  conqueror  (p.  135)  ;  I  go  to  Benares  to  dis- 
sipate the  world's  darkness'  (Maha-vagga  I.  6.  7). 

The  five  ascetics  (Kaundinya  =  Kondanno,  Asvajit  = 
Assaji,Vashpa,  Mahanama,  and  Bhadrika)  were  soon  con- 
verted by  his  words,  and  by  merely  repeating  the  triple 
formula  were  admitted  at  once  to  his  Order  of  monks. 
They  constituted,  with  Gautama,  the  first  six  members 
of  the  Sangha,  or  fraternity  of  men  seeking  release  from 
the  misery  of  existence  by  coenobitic  monasticism. 

And  of  what  nature  were  Gautama  Buddha's  first 
didactic  utterances  1  His  first  sermon,  delivered  in  the 
Deer-park  at  Benares,  is  held  in  as  much  reverence  by 
Buddhists  as  the  first  words  of  Christ  are  by  Christians. 
It  is  called  Dhamma-cakka-ppavattana-sutta,  or  in 
Sanskrit  Dharma-cakra-pravartana-sutra, '  the  discourse 
which  set  in  motion  the  wheel  of  the  law,'  or  *  of  the 
universal  dominance  of  the  true  belief 

The  following  is  the  substance  of  it,  as  given  in  the 
Maha-vagga  (I.  6.  17).  It  is  important  to  note  that  the 
Buddha  spoke  in  the  vernacular  of  Magadha  (now 
called  Pali),  and  not  to  men  generally,  but  to  the  first 
five  would-be  members  of  his  Order  of  monks  : — 


FIRST    SERMON.  43 

'  There  are  two  extremes  (anta),  0  monks  (Blnkkhus), 
to  be  avoided  by  one  who  has  given  up  the  world — a 
life  devoted  to  sensual  pleasures  (kama),  which  is  degrad- 
ing, common,  vulgar,  ignoble,  profitless;  and  a  life  given 
to  self-mortification  (atma-klamatha) — painful,  ignoble, 
profitless.  There  is  a  middle  path,  avoiding  both  ex- 
tremes— the  noble  eightfold  path  discovered  by  the 
Buddha  (Tathagata) — which  leads  to  insight,  to  wisdom, 
to  quietude  (upasama),  to  knowledge,  to  perfect  en- 
lightenment (sambodhi),  to  final  extinction  of  desire 
and  suffering  (Nirvana).' 

So  far  there  is  nothing  very  explicit  in  the  discourse. 
Doubtless  such  precepts  as  'virtue  is  a  mean'  and  that 
'medio  tutissimus  ibis'  are  useful,  though  trite,  truths ; 
but  the  difficulty  is  to  prove  that  the  Buddha's  eightfold 
path  is  really  a  middle  course  of  the  kind  described; 
for  the  most  fanatical  enthusiasts  will  always  regard 
their  own  creed,  however  extravagant,  as  moderate. 

The  Buddha,  therefore,  goes  on  to  propound  what  he 
calls  the  four  noble  truths  (ariya-saccani  =  arya-satyani), 
which  are  the  key  to  his  whole  doctrine.  They  may  be 
stated  thus  : — 

I.  All  existence  —  that  is,  existence .  in  any  form, 
whether  on  earth  or  in  heavenly  spheres — necessarily 
involves  pain  and  suffering  (dukkha).  2.  All  suffering 
is  caused  by  lust  (raga)  or  craving  or  desire  (tanha  = 
trishna,  '  thirst ')  of  three  kinds — for  sensual  pleasure 
(kama),  for  wealth  (vibhava),  and  for  existence  (bhava). 
3.  Cessation  of  suffering  is  simultaneous  with  extinction 
of  lust,  craving,  and  desire  (p.  139).  4.  Extinction  of 
lust,  craving,  and  desire,  and  cessation  of  suffering  are 


44  I'HE    BUDDHA    AS    A    PERSONAL   TEACHER. 

accomplished  bv  perseverance  in  the  noble  eightfold 
path  (ariyo  atthangiko  maggo),  viz.  right  belief  or  views' 
(samma  ditthi),  right  resolve  (sankappo),  right  speech, 
right  work  (kammanto),  right  livelihood  (ajivo),  right 
exercise  or  training  (vayamo  =  vyayama),  right  mindful- 
ness (sati,  p.  50),  right  mental  concentration  (samadhi). 
And  how  is  all  life  mere  suffering  (I.  6.  1 9) '? — 

'  Birth  is  suffering.  Decay  is  suffering.  Illness  is  suffei'ing.  Death 
is  suffering.  Association  with  (sampi-ayogo)  objects  we  hate  is  suffer- 
ing. Separation  from  objects  we  love  is  suffering.  Not  to  obtain 
what  we  desire  is  suffering.  Clinging  (upadana)  to  the  five  elements. 
(p.  109)  of  existence  is  suffering.  Complete  cessation  of  thirst  (tanha) 
and  desires  is  cessation  of  suffering.    This  is  the  noble  truth  of  suffering.' 

This  sermon  (called  in  Ceylon  the  first  Bana  =  Bhana, 
*  recitation,'  p.  70)  was  addressed  to  monks,  and  however 
unfavourably  it  must  compare  with  that  of  Christ  (St. 
Luke  iv.  18),  addressed  not  to  monks  but  to  suffering 
sinners — and  however  obvious  may  be  the  idea  that  pain 
must  result  from  giving  way  to  lust  and  the  desire  for 
life  through  countless  existences — is  of  great  interest 
because  it  embodies  the  first  teaching  of  one,  who,  if  not 
worthy  to  be  called  '  the  Light  of  Asia,'  and  certainly 
unworthy  of  comparison  with  the  '  Light  of  the  World,' 
was  at  least  one  of  the  world's  most  successful  teachers. 

Bear  in  mind  that,  as  the  result  of  his  earliest  medita- 
tion (pp.  39,  56,  102),  the  Buddha  made  ignorance 
precede  lust  as  the  primary  cause  of  life's  misery. 

Of  course  the  real  significance  of  the  whole  sermon 
depends  on  the  interpretation  of  the  word  'right' 
(samma  =  samyak)  in  describing  the  eightfold  path, 
and  the  plain  explanation  is  that  'right  belief  means 
believing  in  the  Buddha  and  his  doctrine;   'right  re- 


EFFECT    OF    FIRST    TEACHING.  45 

solve '  means  abandoning  one's  wife  and  family  as  the 
best  method  of  extinguishing  the  fires  of  the  passions  ; 
right  speech  is  recitation  of  the  Buddha's  doctrine  ;  right 
work  (Karmanta)  is  that  of  a  monk  ;  right  livelihood  is 
living  by  alms  as  a  monk  does  ;  right  exercise  is  suppres- 
sion of  the  individual  self;  right  mindfulness  (Smriti) 
is  keeping  in  mind  the  impurities  and  impermanence  of 
the  body ;  right  mental  concentration  is  trance-like 
quietude. 

Mark,  too,  that  in  describing  the  misery  of  life,  associa- 
tion with  loved  objects  is  not  mentioned  as  compensating 
for  the  pain  of  connexion  with  hateful  objects. 

The  Buddha's  early  disciples  were  not  poor  men  ;  for 
the  sixth  to  be  admitted  to  the  Sangha  was  a  high-born 
youth  named  Yasa.  Then  this  youth's  father,  a  rich 
merchant,  became  the  first  lay-disciple  by  repeating  the 
trifle  formula  (pp.  40,  j'^),  and  his  mother  and  wife 
became  the  first  lay-sisters.  Next,  four  high-born  friends 
of  Yasa,  and  subsequently  fifty  more  became  monks. 
Thus,  not  long  after  the  first  sermon,  Gautama  had 
sixty  enrolled  monks  ;  all  from  the  upper  classes. 

In  sending  forth  these  sixty  monks  to  proclaim  his 
own  gospel  of  deliverance,  he  addressed  them  thus  : — 

'  I  am  delivered  from  all  fetters  (p.  1 2  7),  human  and 
divine.  You  too,  0  monks,  are  freed  from  the  same 
fetters.  Go  forth  and  wander  everywhere,  out  of  com- 
passion for  the  world  and  for  the  welfare  of  gods  and 
men.  Go  forth,  one  by  one,  in  difierent  directions. 
Preach  the  doctrine  (Dharmam),  salutary  (kalyana)  in  its 
beginning,  middle,  and  end,  in  its  spirit  (artha)  and  in 
its  letter  (vyanjana).    Proclaim  a  life  of  perfect  restraint, 


46  THE   BUDDHA    AS    A    PERSONAL   TEACHER. 

chastity,  and  celibacy  (bralimacariyam).     I  will  go  also 
to  preach  this  doctrine  '  (Maba-vagga  I.  1 1.  i). 

When  bis  monk-missionaries  bad  departed,  Gautama 
himself  followed,  though  not  till  Mara  (p.  4 1 )  had  again 
tempted  him.  Quitting  Benares  he  journeyed  back  to 
Uruvela,  near  Gaya.  There  he  first  converted  thirty 
rich  young  men  and  then  one  thousand  orthodox  Brah- 
mans,  led  by  Kasyapa  and  his  two  brothers,  who  main- 
tained a  sacred  fire  ('  Brahmanism,'  p.  364).  The  fire- 
chamber  was  haunted  by  a  fiery  snake-demon ;  so  Buddha 
asked  to  occupy  the  room  for  a  night,  fought  the  serpent 
and  confined  him  in  his  own  alms-bowl.  Next  he  worked 
other  miracles  (said  to  have  been  3500  in  number), 
such  as  causing  water  to  recede,  fire-wood  to  split,  fire- 
vessels  to  appear  at  his  word.  Then  Kasyapa  and  his 
brothers,  convinced  of  his  miraculous  powers,  were 
admitted  with  the  other  Brahmans  to  the  Sangha.  Thus 
Buddha  gathered  round  him  about  a  thousand  monks. 

To  them  on  a  hill  Gayasisa  (Brahma-yoni),  near 
Gaya,  he  preached  his  '  burning '  fire-sermon  (Maha-v° 
I.  21):  'Everything,  0  monks,  is  burning  (adittam  = 
adiptam).  The  eye  is  burning ;  visible  things  are 
burning.  The  sensation  produced  by  contact  with 
visible  things  is  burning — burning  with  the  fire  of  lust 
(desire),  enmity  and  delusion  (ragaggina  dosaggina 
mohaggina),  with  birth,  decay  (jaraya),  death,  grief, 
lamentation,  pain,  dejection  (domanassehi),  and  despair 
(upayasehi).  The  ear  is  burning  ;  sounds  are  burning  ; 
the  nose  is  burning,  odours  are  burning ;  the  tongue  is 
burning,  tastes  are  burning;  the  body  is  burning, 
pbjects  of  sense  are  burning.     The  mind  is  burning ; 


riRE-SEEMON.  47 

thoughts  are  burning.  All  are  burning  with  the  fire  of 
passions  and  lusts.  Observing  this,  0  monks,  a  wise 
and  noble  disciple  becomes  weary  of  (or  disgusted  with) 
the  eye,  weary  of  visible  things,  weary  of  the  ear, 
weary  of  sounds,  weary  of  odours,  weary  of  tastes, 
weary  of  the  body,  weary  of  the  mind.  Becoming 
weary,  he  frees  himself  from  passions  and  lusts.  When 
free,  he  realizes  that  his  object  is  accomplished,  that 
he  has  lived  a  life  of  restraint  and  chastity  (brahma- 
caiiyam),  that  re-birth  is  ended.' 

It  is  said  that  this  fire-sermon — which  is  a  key  to 
the  meaning  of  Nirvana — was  suggested  by  the  sight 
of  a  conflagration.  It  was  Gautama's  custom  to  impress 
ideas  on  his  hearers  by  pointing  to  visible  objects.  He 
compares  all  life  to  a  flame;  and  the  gist  of  the  discourse 
is  the  duty  of  extinguishing  the  fire  of  lusts,  and  with  it 
the  fire  of  all  existence,  and  the  importance  of  monk- 
hood and  celibacy  for  the  attainment  of  this  end. 

Contrast  in  Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount  the  words 
addressed  to  the  multitude  (not  to  monks), '  Blessed  are 
the  pure  in  heart,  for  they  shall  see  God.' 

The  Buddha  and  his  followers  next  proceeded  to  Kaja- 
griha.  Among  them  were  two,  afterwards  called  'chief 
disciples'  (Agra-sravakas),  Sariputta and  Moggallana  (or 
Maudgalyayana),  who  died  before  the  Buddha,  and  six- 
teen leaders  among  the  so-called  eighty  '^rea^  disciples' 
(Maha-sravakas) ;  the  chief  of  these  being  Kasyapa  (or 
Maha-kasyapa),  Upali,  and  Ananda  (a  cousin),  besides 
Anuruddha  (another  cousin),  and  Katyayana.  Of  course 
among  the  eighty  are  reckoned  the  five  original  Benares 
converts.     At  a  later  time  two  chief  female  disciples 


48  THE   BUDDHA    AS    A    PERSONAL  TEACHER. 

(Agra-sravikas)  named  Khema  and  Uppala-vanna  (Ut- 
pala-varna)  were  added  (see  p.  86).  Each  leading 
disciple  was  afterwards  called  Stliavira,  '  an  elder,'  or 
Maba-sthavira,  '  great  elder '  (Pali  Tliera,  Maliathera  ; 
fem.  Then).  Mark,  too,  that  Bimbi-sara,  king  of 
Magadba,  and  Prasenajit  (Pasenadi),  king  of  Kosala, 
were  Gautama's  lay-disciples  and  constant  patrons. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  Buddha's  followers  were 
more  formally  incorporated  into  a  monastic  Order 
(Sangha),  and  rules  of  discipline  drawn  up  (see  pp.  61, 
72,  ']'^,  83).  And  doubtless  the  success  of  Buddhism  was 
due  to  the  carrying  out  of  this  idea  of  establishing  a 
brotherhood  offering  a  haven  of  rest  to  alb 

About  forty-five  years  elapsed  between  Gautama's 
attainment  of  Buddhahood  and  his  death.  During 
that  period  he  continued  teaching  and  itinerating  with 
his  disciples ;  only  going  '  into  retreat '  during  the  rains. 
A  list  of  45  places  of  residence  is  given.  He  seems  to 
have  resided  oftenest  at  Sravasti  (p.  21)  in  the  monas- 
tery Jetavana  given  by  Anatha-pindika ;  but  the  wdiole 
region  between  Sravasti  and  Eaja-griha  (p.  29),  for  nearly 
300  miles,  was  the  scene  of  his  itineration.  Favourite 
resorts  near  Kaja-grilia  were  the  '  Vulture -peak'  and 
Bambu-grove  (Ve]u-vana) ;  but  continual  itineration  was 
one  chief  means  of  propagating  Buddhism. 

It  is  said  that  his  death  occurred  at  Kusi-nagara^ 
(Kusinara),  a  town  about  eighty  miles  east  of  Kapila- 


^  Or  Knsa-nagara,  identified  by  Gen.  Sir  A.  Cunningham  with 
Kasia,  35  miles  east  of  Gorakh-pore  ou  au  old  channel  of  the  Cliota 
Gandak. 


DEATH   AND   LAST  WORDS.  49 

vastu — the  place  of  his  birth — when  he  was  eighty 
years  of  age,  and  probably  about  the  year  420  b.  c.^ 

The  story  is  that  Gautama  died  from  eating  too  much 
pork  (or  dried  boar's  flesh  ^).  As  this  is  somewhat  dero- 
gatory to  his  dignity  it  is  not  likely  to  have  been  fabri- 
cated. A  fabrication,  too,  would  scarcely  make  him  guilty 
of  the  inconsistency  of  saying  '  Kill  no  living  thing,'  a.nd 
yet  setting  an  example  of  eating  flesh-meat. 

These  were  his  words  when  he  felt  his  end  near : — 

'  0  Ananda,  I  am  now  grown  old,  and  full  of  years, 
and  my  journey  is  drawing  to  its  close ;  I  have  reached 
eighty  years — my  sum  of  days — and  just  as  a  worn-out 
cart  can  only  with  much  care  be  made  to  move  along, 
so  my  body  can  only  be  kept  going  with  difficulty.  It 
is  only  when  I  become  plunged  in  meditation  that  my 
body  is  at  ease.  In  future  be  ye  to  yourselves  your  own 
light,  your  own  refuge ;  seek  no  other  refuge.  Hold 
fast  to  the  truth  as  your  lamp.  Hold  fast  to  the  truth 
as  your  refuge;  look  not  to  any  one  but  yourselves  as  a 
refuge'  (Maha-parinibbana-sutta  II.  32,  33). 

Afterwards  he  gave  a  summary  of  every  monk's 
duties,  thus: — 'Which  then,  0  monks,  are  the  truths 
(  =  the  seven  jewels,  p.  127)  it  behoves  you  to  spread 
abroad,  out  of  pity  for  the  world,  for  the  good  of  gods 
and  men?  They  are  :  i.  the  four  earnest  reflections 
(Smriti,  Sati-patthana,  on  the  impurities  of  the  body,  on 
the  impermanence  of  the  sensations,  of  the  thoughts,  of 

^  I  give  420  as  a  round  number.  Rhys  Davids  has  good  reasons 
for  fixing  the  date  of  Gautama's  death  about  B.C.  412,  Oldenberg 
about  480,  Cunningham  478,  Kern  388.     The  old  date  is  543. 

'^  See  Book  of  the  great  Decease,  translated  by  Ehys  Davids,  p.  72. 

E 


50     THE  BUDDHA  AS  A  PEKSONAL  TEACHER. 

the  conditions  of  existence,  p.  127);  2.  the  four  right 
exertions  (Sammappadhana,  viz.  to  prevent  demerit 
from  arising,  get  rid  of  it  when  arisen,  produce  merit, 
increase  it) ;  3.  the  four  paths  to  supernatural  power 
(Iddhi-pilda,  viz.  will,  effort,  thought,  intense  thought)  ; 
4,  the  five  forces  (Paiica-bala,  viz.  faith,  energy,  recollec- 
tion, self-concentration,  reason)  ;  5.  the  proper  use  of  the 
five  organs  of  sense;  6.  the  seven  'limbs'  of  knowledge 
(Bodhy-anga,  viz.  recollection,  investigation,  energy,  joy, 
serenity,  concentration  of  mind,  equanimity);  7.  the  noble 
eightfold  path'  (p.  44),     See  Maha-parinibbana  TIT.  65. 

Then  shortly  before  his  decease,  he  said,  '  It  may  be, 
Ananda,  that  in  some  of  you  the  thought  may  arise  : — 
The  words  of  our  Teacher  are  ended ;  we  have  lost  our 
Master.  But  it  is  not  thus.  The  truths  and  the  rules 
of  the  Order,  which  I  have  taught  and  preached,  let 
these  be  your  teacher,  when  I  am  gone'  (VI.  i). 

'  Behold  now,  0  monks,  I  exhort  you  : — Everything 
that  Cometh  into  being  passeth  away ;  work  out  your 
own  perfection  with  diligence '  (TIT.  66). 

Not  long  after  his  last  utterances  the  Buddha,  who  had 
before  through  intense  meditation  attained  Nirvana  or 
extinction  of  the  fire  of  desires,  passed  through  the  four 
stages  of  meditation  (p.  209)  till  the  moment  came  for 
his  Pari-nirvana,  whereby  the  fire  of  life  also  was  ex- 
tinguished. A  couch  had  been  placed  for  him  between 
two  Sal  trees  (p.  23),  with  the  head  towards  the  north. 
In  sculptures  he  is  represented  as  lying  on  his  right 
side  at  the  moment  of  death,  and  images  of  him  in  this 
position  are  highly  venerated. 

The  chief  men  of  Kusi-nagara  burnt  his  body  with 


CHARACTER   OF   TEACHING.  51 

the  ceremonies  usual  at  the  death  of  a  Cakravartin  or 
Universal  Kuler,  which  the  Buddha  claimed  to  be. 

Then  his  ashes  were  distributed  among  eight  princes, 
who  built  Stiipas  over  them  (Buddha-vansa  28). 

A  legend  states  that  when  the  Buddha  died  there 
was  an  earthquake.  Then  the  gods  Brahma  and  Indra 
appeared  and  the  latter  exclaimed :  '  Transient  are  all 
the  elements  of  being;  birth  and  decay  are  their  nature; 
they  are  born  and  dissolved  ;  then  only  is  happiness 
when  they  have  ceased  to  be'  (Maha-p°  VI.  16). 

Contrast  with  Buddha's  last  words  the  last  words  of 
Christ :  '  Father,  into  Thy  haads  I  commend  my  Spirit.' 

A  greater  contrast  than  that  presented  by  the  account 
of  the  Buddha's  death  and  the  Gospel  narrative  of  the 
death  of  Christ  can  scarcely  be  imagined. 

Of  course  as  a  result  of  discourses  during  forty-five 
years,  a  large  number  were  gathered  into  Gautama's 
monastic  Order.  His  first  aim  was  the  founding  of 
this  Order,  and  his  chief  sermons  were  to  his  monks  ; 
but  he  accepted  all  men  and  ultimately  multitudes 
attached  themselves  to  him  as  lay-brethren  (p.  Sj). 

In  fact  Gautama's  doctrine  of  a  universal  brother- 
hood, open  to  all,  constituted  the  corner-stone  of  his 
popularity.  He  spoke  to  them  in  their  own  provincial 
dialect,  which  could  not  have  differed  much  from  the 
PaH  of  the  texts — and  he  enforced  his  words  by 
dialogues,  parables,  fables,  reiterations,  and  repetitions. 
Probably  he  was  the  first  introducer  of  real  preaching  into 
India,  and  by  his  practical  method  he  seemed  to  bring 
down  knowledge  from  the  clouds  to  every  man's  door. 

The   following    parable   is   an   example :     '  As    the 

E  2 


52  THE   BUDDHA    AS   A    PEESONAL   TEACHER. 

peasant  sows  the  seed  but  cannot  say :  the  grain  shall 
swell  to-day,  to-morrow  germinate,  so  also  it  is  with 
the  disciple ;  he  must  obey  the  precepts,  practise 
meditation,  study  the  doctrine ;  he  cannot  say  to-day 
or  to-morrow,  I  shall  be  delivered.  Again:  as  when  a 
herd  of  deer  lives  in  a  forest  a  man  comes  who  opens 
for  them  a  false  path  and  the  deer  suffer  hurt ;  and 
another  comes  who  opens  a  safe  path  and  the  deer 
thrive  ;  so  when  men  live  among  pleasures  the  evil 
one  comes  and  opens  the  false  eightfold  path.  Then 
comes  the  perfect  one  and  opens  the  safe  eightfold  path 
of  right  belief,  etc'  (p.  44,  Oldenberg,  191,  192). 

Six  rival  heretical  teachers  are  alluded  to.  His  chief 
opponent  was  his  cousin  Devadatta,  who  set  up  a  school 
of  his  own,  and  is  said  to  have  plotted  against  the 
Buddha's  life.  His  efforts  failed  (CuUa-vagga  VII),  and 
he  himself  came  to  an  untimely  end.  Possibly  he  may 
have  belonged  to  the  rival  Jaina  sect  (Nigantha)  of 
naked  ascetics,  of  which  the  great  leader  was  Var- 
dhamana  Mahavira  Nata-putta  ( =  Jnati-putra). 

Gautama's  teaching  gained  the  day.  It  claimed  uni- 
versality, and  was  aptly  symbolized  by  a  wheel  rolling 
among  all  alike.  Yet  at  first  it  had  no  attractions  for 
the  poor  and  the  child-like. 

By  degrees,  a  fuller  system,  adapted  in  an  ascending 
scale  to  laymen,  novices,  monks,  nuns,  and  Arhats,  was 
developed — a  system  which  had  its  abstruse  doctrines 
suited  to  men  of  philosophical  minds,  as  well  as  its  plain 
practical  side.  This  constituted  the  Buddhist  Dharma, 
which  was  ultimately  collected  in  certain  sacred  books 
to  be  next  described. 


LECTUKE   III. 

The  Law  {DJiarma)  and  Sacred  Scr{j)tures  of 
Buddhism. 

Probably  most  educated  persons  are  aware  that  Bud- 
dhists have  their  own  sacred  scriptures,  like  Hindus, 
Parsis,  Confucianists,  Muhammadans,  Jews,  and  Chris- 
tians. It  is  not,  however,  so  generally  known  that  in 
one  important  particular  these  Buddhist  scriptures,  con- 
stituting the  Tri-pitaka  (p.  6i),  differ  wholly  from  other 
sacred  books.  They  lay  no  claim  to  supernatural  in- 
spiration. Whatever  doctrine  is  found  in  them  was 
believed  to  be  purely  human — that  is,  was  held  to  be 
the  product  of  man's  own  natural  faculties  working 
naturally. 

The  Tri-pitaka  was  never  hke  the  Veda  of  the  Brah- 
mans,  believed  to  be  the  very '  breath  of  God  '^ ;  the  same 
care,  therefore,  was  not  taken  to  preserve  every  sound ; 
and  when  at  last  it  was  written  down  the  result  was 
a  more  scholastic  production  than  the  Veda. 

Moreover,  it  was  not  composed  in  the  Sanskrit  of 
the  Veda  and  Sastras — in  the  sacred  language,  the  very 

^  The  Satapatha-brahmana  (p.  1064)  and  the  Brihad-aranyaka 
Upanishad  (p.  455)  affirm  that  the  Rig-  Yajur-  Sama-  and  Atharva- 
veda,  the  Upanishads,  Itihasas,  and  Puranas  were  all  the  breath 
(nihsvasitani)  of  the  Supreme  Being.  And  Sayana,  the  well-known 
Indian  Commentator  on  the  Rig-veda,  speaking  of  the  Supreme  Being 
in  his  Introduction,  says,  Yasya  nihsvasitam  Vedah,  '  whose  breath 
the  Vedas  were.' 


54     THE  LAW  AND  SACRED  SCRIPTURES  OF  BUDDHISM. 

grammar  and  alphabet  of  which  were  supposed  to  come 
from  heaven — but  in  the  vernacular  of  the  part  of 
India  in  which  Buddhism  flourished.  Indeed,  it  is  a 
sigDificant  fact  that  while  the  great  sages  of  Sanskrit 
literature  and  philosophy,  such  as  Vyasa,  Kumarila,  and 
Sankara,  in  all  probability  spoke  and  taught  in  Sanskrit  ^ 
the  Founder  of  Buddhism  preferred  to  communicate  his 
precepts  to  the  people  in  their  own  vernacular,  afterwards 
called  Pali.  Nevertheless,  he  never  composed  a  single 
book  of  his  own.  In  all  probability  he  never  wrote 
down  any  of  his  own  precepts  ;  for  if  writing  was  then 
invented,  it  was  little  practised,  through  the  absence  of 
suitable  materials.  This  is  the  more  remarkable  as 
Buddhism  ultimately  became  an  instrument  for  intro- 
ducing literary  culture  among  uncivilized  races. 

All  that  Gautama  did  was  to  preach  his  Dharma,'Law,' 
during  forty-live  years  of  itineration,  and  oral  teaching. 
It  was  not  till  some  time  after  his  death  that  his  say- 
ings were  collected  (p.  97),  and  still  longer  before  they 
were  written  down.  Itineration,  recitation  of  the  Law, 
and  preaching  were  the  chief  instruments  for  the  pro- 
pagation of  Buddhism. 

At  present  the  Buddhist  Canon  is  about  as  extensive 
as  the  BrahmanicaP,  and  in  both  cases  we  are  left  in 

^  How  else  can  we  accouut  for  Panini's  applying  the  term  Bbashfi 
to  colloquial  Sanskrit  1  Professor  E.  B.  Cowell  holds  that  Panini's 
Btandard  is  the  Brahmana  language  as  opposed  to  the  Samhita  of  the 
Veda  and  to  Loka  or  ordinary  usage. 

^  According  to  Professor  Rhys  Davids,  the  Pali  text  of  the  whole 
Tri-pitaka,  or  true  Canon  of  Buddhist  Scripture,  contains  about  twice 
as  many  words  as  our  Bible ;  but  he  calculates  that  an  English  trans- 
lation, if  all  repetitious  were  given,  would  be  about  four  times  oa 


FIRST   COUNCIL.  55 

doubt  as  to  the  date  when  the  books  were  composed. 
How,  then,  did  their  composition  take  place  ? 

All  that  can  be  said  is  that  at  three  successive 
epochs  after  the  Buddha's  death,  three  gatherings  of 
his  followers  were  held  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  his 
sayings  and  settling  the  true  Canon,  and  that  a  fourth 
assembly  took  place  much  later  in  the  North. 

The  first  of  these  assemblages  can  scarcely  with  any 
fitness  be  called  a  Council.  Nor  can  the  fact  of  its 
meeting  together  in  any  formal  manner  be  established 
on  any  trustworthy  historical  basis.  It  is  said  that  a 
number  of  monks  (about  five  hundred,  called  Maha- 
sthavirah,  'the  great  elders/  Pali  Maha-thera)  assembled 
in  a  cave  called  Sattapanni,  near  the  then  capital  city  of 
Magadha — Eaja-griha,  now  Eaj-gir — under  the  sanction 
of  king  Ajata-satru,  during  the  rainy  season  immediately 
succeeding  the  death  of  Gautama,  to  think  over,  put 
together,  and  arrange  the  sayings  of  their  Master,  but 
not,  so  far  as  we  know,  to  write  them  down. 

There,  in  all  likelihood,  they  made  the  first  step 
towards  a  methodical  arrangement.  But  even  then  it 
is  doubtful  whether  any  systematic  collections  were 
composed.  The  assembled  monks  chose  Kasyapa  (or 
Maha-kasyapa,  p.  47),  the  most  esteemed  of  all  the 
Buddha's  surviving  disciples,  as  their  leader,  and  chanted 
the  Thera-vada  (Sthavira-v°),  '  words  of  the  elders,'  or 
precepts  of  their  Founder  preserved  in  the  memory  of 
the  older  men ;  the  rules  of  discipline  (Vinaya)  being- 
long.  I  should  state  here  that  in  this  chapter  Koeppen,  Childers,  Rhys 
Davids,  and  Oldenbei-g  have  all  been  referred  to,  though  I  have  not 
failed  to  examine  the  original  Pali  documents  myself. 


56     THE  LA.W  AND  SACRED  SCRIPTURES  OF  BUDDHISM. 

recited  by  Upfili  ^  and  the  ethical  precepts  (Sutra),  which 
constituted  at  first  the  principal  Dharma-  (jiar  excellence, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  Vinaya),  being  imparted  by 
Gautama's  favourite  Ananda  (p.  47) ;  while  the  philo- 
sophical doctrines — then  undeveloped — were  communi- 
cated by  the  president,  Kasyapa.  If  any  arrangement 
was  then  made  it  was  probably  in  two  collections — the 
Vinaya  and  Dharma  (say  about  400  B.C.) 

In  regard  to  the  Dharma,  two  main  lines  were, 
in  all  likelihood,  laid  down  as  the  basis  of  all  early 
teaching:.  The  first  consisted  of  the  four  sublime  veri- 
ties,  as  they  are  called — that  is,  of  the  four  fundamental 
truths  originally  taught  by  the  Founder  of  Buddhism, 
namely,  the  inevitable  inherence  of  suffering  in  every 
form  of  life,  the  connexion  of  all  suffering;  with  indnl- 
gence  of  desires,  especially  with  craving  for  continuity 
of  existence,  the  possibility  of  the  cessation  of  suffering 
by  restraining  lusts  and  desires,  and  the  eightfold 
course  leading  to  that  cessation  (see  p.  44). 

The  second  line  of  doctrine  probably  consisted  of  an 
outline  of  the  twelve-linked  chain  of  causality  (nidana), 
which  traced  back  all  suffering  to  a  still  deeper  origin  than 
mere  lusts  and  desires — namely,  to  ignorance  (p.  103). 

It  is  not,  however,  at  all  likely  that  any  philosophical 

'  Upali  is  said  to  have  been  origiually  the  family  barber  of  the 
Sakyas.  Professor  Oldcnberg  rightly  remarks  that  this  did  not  make 
him  a  man  of  low  position,  though  he  was  probably  the  lowest  in  rank 
of  all  the  early  disciples  of  Gautama. 

^  Professor  Oldenberg,  in  his  preface  to  his  edition  of  the  Maha- 
vagga,  shows  that  in  early  times  there  were  only  two  divisions  of  the 
Pitaka,  one  called  Vinaya  and  the  other  Dharma  (Dhamma),  which 
were  often  contrasted. 


SECOND   COUXCIL.  57 

or  metaphysical  doctrines  were  clearly  and  methodically 
formulated  at  the  earliest  assembly  which  took  place 
soon  after  Gautama's  death.  It  is  far  more  probable 
that  the  first  outcome  of  the  gathering  together  of  the 
Buddha's  disciples  was  simply  the  enforcing  of  some 
strict  rules  of  discipline  for  the  Order  of  monks,  and 
this  may  have  taken  place  soon  after  400  B.C. 

After  a  time,  certain  relaxations  of  these  rules  or 
unauthorized  departures  from  them  (ten  in  number, 
such  as  reception  of  money-gifts,  eating  a  second  meal 
in  the  afternoon,  drinking  stimulating  beverages,  if  pure 
as  water  in  appearance^),  began  to  be  common.  The 
question  as  to  whether  liberty  should  be  allowed  in 
these  points,  esjJeciaUy  in  the  first,  shook  the  very  founda- 
tions of  the  community.  In  fact  the  whole  society  be- 
came split  up  into  two  contending  parties,  the  strict  and 
the  lax,  and  a  second  Council  became  necessary  for  the 
restoration  of  order.  All  ten  points  were  discussed  at 
this  Council,  said  to  have  consisted  of  700  monks  and 
held  at  Yaisali  (Vesali,  now  Besarh),  27  miles  north  of 
Patna,  about  380  B.c.^  The  discussions  were  protracted 
for  eiglit  months,  and  all  the  ten  unlawful  relaxations 
were  finally  prohibited. 

^  The  ten  usually  enumerated  are  the  three  above-named  and  seven 
others,  viz.  power  of  admitting  to  the  Order  and  confession  in  private 
houses,  the  use  of  comfortable  seats,  relaxation  of  monastic  rules  in  re- 
mote country  places,  power  of  obtaining  a  dispensation  from  the  Order 
after  the  infringement  of  a  rule,  drinking  whey,  putting  salt  aside  for 
future  use,  power  of  citing  the  example  of  others  as  a  valid  excuse  for 
relaxing  discipline. 

^  According  to  Professor  Oldenberg's  calculation.  The  date  is 
doubtful.     A  round  number  (say  350  B.C.)  might  be  given. 


58     THE  LAW  AND  SACKED  SCRIPTURES  OF  BUDDHISM. 

It  has  been  observed  that  this  second  Council  stands 
in  a  relation  to  Buddhism  very  similar  to  that  which 
the  Council  of  Nicsea  bears  to  Christianity. 

The  exact  date,  however,  of  either  the  first  or  second 
assembHes  cannot  be  determined  with  precision. 

Not  long  afterwards  occurred  the  political  revolution 
caused  by  the  well-known  Candra-gupta  { =  Sandra- 
kottus) — sometimes  called  the  first  Asoka  (or  disparag- 
ingly, Killasoka).  This  man,  who  w^as  a  low-born  Sudra, 
usurped  the  throne  and  founded  the  Maurya  dynasty, 
after  kilhng  king  Nanda  and  taking  possession  of 
Pataliputra  (or  Palibothra,  now  Patna,  the  then  me- 
tropolis of  Magadha  or  Behar),  about  315  B.C.  He 
extended  the  kingdom  of  Magadha  over  all  Hindustan, 
and  became  so  powerful  that  when  Alexander's  successor, 
Seleukos  Nikator  (whose  reign  commenced  about  312 
B.  c),  invaded  India  from  his  kingdom  of  Bactria,  so 
eflfectual  was  the  resistance  offered  by  Oandra-gupta, 
that  the  Greek  thought  it  politic  to  form  an  alliance 
with  the  Hindu  king,  and  sent  his  own  countryman, 
Megasthenes,  as  an  ambassador  to  reside  at  his  court. 

To  this  circumstance  we  owe  the  earliest  authentic 
account  of  Indian  customs  and  usages,  by  an  intelligent 
observer  who  was  not  a  native;  and  Megasthenes' 
narrative,  preserved  by  Strabo,  furnishes  a  basis  on 
which  a  fair  inference  may  be  founded  that  Brah- 
manism  and  Buddhism  existed  side  by  side  in  India 
on  amicable  terms  in  the  fourth  and  third  centuries  B.C. 
There  is  evjen  ground  for  believing  that  king  Candra- 
gupta  himself  favoured  the  Buddhists,  though  outwardly 
he  never  renounced  his  faith  in  Brahmanism. 


THIRD    COUNCIL.  59 

Candra-gupta's  reign  is  thought  to  have  lasted  until 
291  B.C.,  and  that  of  his  son  and  successor,  Vindusara, 
from  291  to  (say)  about  260  B.C.  Then  came  Candra- 
gupta's  grandson,  the  celebrated  Asoka  (sometimes 
called  Dharmasoka),  who,  though  of  Sudra  origin,  was 
perhaps  the  greatest  Hindu  monarch  of  India. 

It  was  about  this  period  that  Gautama  Buddha's 
followers  began  to  develope  his  doctrines,  and  to  make 
additions  to  them  in  such  a  w^ay  that  the  Abhi-dharma 
or  '  further  Dharma '  had  to  be  added  to  the  Sutra 
which  constituted  the  original  Dharma  (p.  56).  Even 
in  Gautama's  time  there  were  great  dissensions. 
Afterwards  differences  of  opinion  increased,  so  that 
before  long  eighteen  schools  of  schismatic  thought 
(p.  158)  were  established.  The  resulting  controversies 
were  very  disturbing,  and  a  third  Council  became 
necessary.  It  consisted  of  a  thousand  oldest  members 
of  the  Order,  and  was  held  in  the  1 6th  or  1 7th  year  of 
Asoka's reign  at  Patua  (Patah-putra),  about  244-242  B.C. 

This  third  Council  was,  perhaps,  the  most  important ; 
for  through  its  deliberations  the  decision  was  arrived 
at  to  propagate  Buddhism  by  missions.  Hence  mis- 
sionaries, supported  by  king  Asoka  (see  p.  66),  were  sent 
in  all  directions ;  the  first  being  Mahinda  (Mahendra), 
the  king's  son,  who  carried  the  doctrine  into  Ceylon. 

Dr.  Oldenberg  has  shown  that  in  a  part  of  the 
Tri-pitaka  now  extant,  the  first  and  second  Councils 
are  mentioned  but  not  the  third.  The  plain  inference 
is  that  the  portion  of  the  Buddhist  Canon  in  which 
the  second  Council  is  described  cannot  be  older  than 
that  Council.     Yet  in  all  likelihood  a  great  part  of 


6o     THE  LAW  AND  SACRED  SCRIPTURES  OF  BUDDHISM. 

the  Yinaya  (including  the  Patimokkha  and  the  Khan- 
dhaka,  p.  62)  was  composed  before  the  second  Council — 
possibly  as  early  as  about  400  B.C. — and  the  rest  of 
the  Canon  during  the  succeeding  century  and  a  half 
before  the  third  Council — that  is,  from  400  to  250  B.C. 
It  was  composed  in  the  then  vernacular  language  of 
Magadha  (Magadhi),  where  all  three  Councils  were  held. 
It  seems,  however,  probable  that  in  each  district  to 
which  Buddhism  spread  the  doctrine  of  its  founder 
was  taught  in  the  peculiar  dialect  understood  by  the 
inhabitants.  It  even  appears  likely  that  when  Gau- 
tama himself  lived  in  Kosala  (Oudh)  he  preached  in 
the  dialect  of  that  province  just  as  he  taught  in 
Magadhi  when  he  resided  in  Matradha.  The  Culla- 
vagga  (V.  33.  i)  makes  him  direct  that  his  precepts 
should  be  learnt  by  every  convert  in  the  provincial 
dialect,  which  doubtless  varied  slightly  everywhere. 
In  time  it  became  necessary  to  give  fixity  to  the  sacred 
texts,  and  the  form  they  finally  assumed  may  have 
represented  the  prevalent  dialect  of  the  time,  and  not 
necessarilv  the  original  Maoadhi  Prakrit  \  This  final 
form  of  the  language  was  called  Pali  ^  (or  Tanti),  and  no 

^  Professor  Oldenberg  places  the  locality  of  the  Pali  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Southern  India  in  the  northern  part  of  Kalinga 
(Purl  in  Orissa),  and  would  therefore  make  it  an  old  form  of  Uriya. 
That  country  he  thinks  had  most  frequent  communications  with  Ceylon. 

^  Professor  Childers  thought  that  Pali  merely  meant  the  language 
of  the  line  or  series  of  texts,  the  word  pali  like  tanti  meaning  '  line.' 
Pali  differs  from  the  Prakrit  of  the  Inscriptions,  and  from  that  of  the 
dramas,  and  from  that  of  the  Jainas  (which  is  still  later  and  called 
Ardha-mugadhI),  by  its  retention  of  some  consonants  and  infusion  of 
Sanskrit.    The  Gatha  dialect  of  the  northern  books  is  again  different. 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE    SOUTHEEN    CANON.  6 1 

doubt  diflers  from  the  earlier  Asoka  inscription  dialect, 
and  from  Magadhi  Prakrit  as  now  known. 

Some  think  that  the  Pali  resulted  from  an  artificial 
infusion  of  Sanskrit.  It  is  said  that  nearly  two-fifths  of 
the  Pali  vocabulary  consists  of  unmodified  Sanskrit. 

At  any  rate,  it  was  in  this  language  that  the  Buddhist 
Law  was  carried  (probably  by  Mahendra)  into  Ceylon, 
and  the  whole  Canon  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been 
handed  down  orally  till  it  was  written  down  there  about 
85  B.C.  Oral  transmission,  we  know,  was  common  in 
India,  but  if  edicts  were  written  by  Asoka  (p.  67),  why 
should  not  the  Law  have  been  written  down  also  ? 

As,  however,  Pali  was  not  spoken  in  Ceylon,  the  Pali 
commentaries  brought  by  Mahendra  were  translated 
by  him  into  Sinhalese,  and  the  Pali  originals  being 
lost,  were  not  retranslated  into  Pali  till  about  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century  of  our  era. 

Turning  next  to  the  final  arrangement  of  the  Pali 
Canon,  we  find  that  it  resolved  itself  into  three  col- 
lections (called  Tri-pitaka,  Pali  Tipitaka,  'Three  baskets,' 
the  word  pitaka,  however,  not  occurring  in  the  early 
texts),  namely  :  i.  Vinaya,  'discipline'  for  the  Order; 
2.  Sutra  (Pali  Sutta),  'precepts,'  which  at  first  consti- 
tuted the  principal  Dharma,  or  moral  Law  (p.  56);  3. 
Abhi-dharma  (Abhi-dhamma),  '  further  Dharma,'  or  addi- 
tional precepts  relative  to  the  law  and  philosophy. 

This  division  was  not  logical,  as  each  collection  may 
treat  of  the  subjects  belonging  to  the  others. 

Taking,  then,  in  the  first  place,  the  Vinaya  or  dis- 
cipline portion  of  the  Buddhist  bible,  we  ought  to 
observe  that  a  portion  of  it  (the  Patimokkha)  is  not  only 


62    THE  LAW  AND  SACRED  SCRIPTURES  OF  BUDDHISM. 

the  oldest,  but  also  the  most  important  m  its  bearing 
on  the  whole  theory  of  Buddhism.  For,  as  we  shall 
point  out  more  fully  hereafter,  the  Buddha's  paramount 
aim  was  to  convince  others  that  to  get  rid  of  ignorance, 
gain  knowledge,  practise  morality,  and  obtain  deliver- 
ance, it  was  incumbent  on  a  wise  man  to  renounce 
married  life  and  become  a  member  of  a  monastic  Order. 

Pure  Buddhism,  in  fact,  was  pure  monachism — imply- 
ing celibacy,  poverty,  and  mendicancy — and  this  could 
not  be  maintained  without  rules  for  discipline  and  out- 
ward conduct,  which,  as  adopted  by  the  Buddha,  were 
simply  a  modification  of  the  rules  for  the  two  religious 
orders  of  the  Brahma-carl  and  SannyasI,  already  existing 
in  Brahmanism. 

With  regard  to  the  classification  of  the  Vinaya  rules, 
they  were  divided  into  three  sets  :  a.  the  Khandhaka, 
in  two  collections  called  Maha-vagga  (Maha-varga), 
'great  section,'  and  Culla-vagga,  'minor  section'  (vagga 
=  varga) ;  h.  the  Vibhaiiga  (including  the  two  works 
called  Parajika  and  Pilcittiya),  or  a  systematic  arrange- 
ment and  explanation  of  certain  ancients'  release-pre- 
cepts' (pratimoksha-sutra,  Pali  Pfitimokkha)  for  setting 
free,  through  penances,  any  who  had  offended  against 
the  Order  ;  c.  Parivara-patha,  or  a  comparatively  modern 
summary  of  the  above  two  divisions. 

Mark,  however,  that  the  Vinaya  abounds  in  details 
of  the  life  and  teaching  of  Gautama. 

The  second  Pitaka,  called  Sutta  (Sutra),  '  precepts,' 
contains  the  ethical  doctrines  which  at  first  constituted 
the  whole  Buddhist  Law.  It  consists  of  five  Nikayas, 
or  collections,  viz.  a.  the  Digha,  or  collection  of  34  long 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE    SOUTHERN   CANON.  63 

snttas,  among  which  is  the  Maha-parinibbana-sutta  (one 
of  the  oldest  parts  of  the  Canon  after  the  Patimokkha) ; 
h.  the  Majjhima,  or  collection  of  152  suttas  of  middling 
length;  c.  the  Sarnyutta,  or  collection  of  55  groups  of 
joined  suttas,  some  of  them  very  short ;  d.  the  Ahgut- 
tara,  or  miscellaneous  suttas  in  divisions,  which  go  on 
increasing  by  one  (anga)  ;  e.  the  Khuddaka,  or  minor 
collection,  consisting  of  fifteen  works. 

According  to  one  school,  this  fifth  Nikaya  is  more  cor- 
rectly referred  to  the  Abhi-dhammaPitaka.  In  character, 
however,  it  conforms  more  to  the  Sutta.  Of  its  fifteen 
works,  perhaps  the  most  important  are  the  following  six: — 

The  Khuddaka-patha, '  short  readings  ;'  the  Dhamma- 
pada,  *  precepts  of  the  Law '  (or  '  verses  of  the  Law,'  or 
'footsteps  of  the  Law');  the  Jataka  (with  their  commen- 
taries), a  series  of  stories  relating  to  about  550^  previous 
births  of  the  Buddha  (p.  iii),  which  have  formed  the 
basis  of  many  stories  in  the  Panca-tantra,  fables  of  ^sop, 
etc.;  the  Sutta-nipata,  'collection  of  discourses ; '  the 
Thera-gatha  ( =  Sthavira-g°),  'verses  or  stanzas  by  elder 
monks  ;'  Theri-gatha,  '  verses  by  elder  nuns.' 

The  other  nine  are  the  Udana,  containing  82  short 
suttas  and  joyous  utterances  of  the  Buddha  at  crises 
of  his  life;  the  Itivuttaka,  'thus  it  was  said'  (  =  ity 
ukta),  no  sayings  of  the  Buddha;  the  Vimana-vatthu, 
on  the  mansions  of  the  gods  (which  move  about  at  will 
and  sometimes  descend  on  earth)  ;  the  Peta-vatthu 
( =  Preta-vastu,    Peta   standing   for  Preta   and   Pitri), 

^  550  is  a  round  number.  The  text  of  the  Jatakas  has  been 
edited  by  Fausboll  and  translated  by  Rhys  Davids  and  others.  See 
a  specimen  at  p.  112. 


64     THE  LAW  AND  SACRED  SCRIPTURES  OF  BUDDHISM. 

on  departed  spirits ;  the  Niddesa,  a  commentary  on 
the  Sutta-nipata ;  the  Pati-sambhida,  on  the  super- 
natural knowledge  of  Arhats;  the  Apadana  (Sanskrit 
Avadana),  'stories  about  the  achievements'  of  Arhats  ; 
the  Buddha-vansa,  or  history  of  the  24  preceding  Bud- 
dhas  (the  Digha  mentions  only  six)  and  of  Gautama ; 
the  Cariya-pitaka,  'treasury  of  acts,'  giving  stories  based 
on  the  Jatakas,  describing  Gautama's  acquisition  of  the 
ten  transcendent  virtues  (p.  128)  in  former  births. 

The  works  included  in  this  Sutta-pitaka  frequently 
take  the  form  of  conversations  on  doctrine  and  morality^ 
between  Gautama,  or  one  of  his  chief  disciples,  and  some 
inquirer.  As  constituting  the  ethical  Dharma,  they  are 
the  most  interesting  portion  of  the  Canon. 

With  regard  to  the  third  Pitaka,  called  Abhi-dhamma 
(Abbhi-dharma,  '  further  dharma '),  which  is  held  by 
modern  scholars  to  be  of  later  origin  and  supple- 
mentary to  the  Sutta  (p.  62),  it  contains  seven  prose 
works  ^  Moreover,  it  was  once  thought  to  relate  en- 
tirely to  metaphysics  and  philosophy  ;  but  this  is  now 
held  to  be  an  error,  for  all  seven  works  treat  of  a  great 
variety  of  subjects,  including  discipline  and  ethics.  Meta- 
physical discussions  occur,  but  it  is  probable  that  origin- 
ally Buddha  kej^t  clear  of  metaphysics  (see  p.  98). 

Besides  the  numerous  works  w^e  have  thus  described 
as  constituting  the   Tri-pitaka  or  three  collections  of 

'  The  geven  are  called:  i.  Dhamma-saiigani,  'enumeration  of  con- 
ditions of  existence,'  edited  by  Dr.  E.  Miiller;  2.  Vibhaiiga,  '  explana- 
tions ; '  3.  Katba-vatthu,  '  discussions  on  one  thousand  controverted 
points;'  4.  Puggala-paiiuatti,  '  explanation  of  personality ;'  5.  Dhatu- 
katha,  'account  of  elements ; '  6.  Yamaka,  'pairs;'  7.  Patthuna,  'causes.' 


COMMENTAKIES.      BUDDHA-GHOSHA.  65 

works  of  the  Southern  Buddhists,  there  are  the  Pali 
commentaries  called  Attha-katha  (Artha-katha,  '  telling 
of  meanings^'),  which  were  translated  into  Sinhalese, 
according  to  tradition,  by  Mahendra  himself.  Afterwards 
the  original  Pali  text  was  lost  and  some  of  the  com- 
mentaries were  retranslated  into  Pali  by  Buddha-ghosha, 
*  he  who  had  the  very  voice  of  Buddha,'  at  the  end  of  the 
fourth  and  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  of  our  era. 

The  Maha-vansa  or  '  history  of  the  great  families  of 
Ceylon,'  a  well-known  work  (written  in  Pali  by  a  monk 
named  Maha-nama  in  the  fifth  century  and  translated 
by  Turnour),  gives  an  account  of  this  writer^.  It  says 
that  a  Brahman  youth,  born  near  Buddha-Gaya  in 
Magadha,  had  achieved  great  celebrity  as  a  disputant 
in  Brahmanical  philosophy.  This  youth  was  converted 
by  a  Buddhist  sage  in  India,  and  induced  to  enter  the 
Buddhist  monastic  Order.  He  soon  became  renowned 
for  his  eloquence,  and  was  on  that  account  called 
Buddha-ghosha.  He  wrote  a  commentary,  called  Attha- 
salinT,  on  the  Dhamma-sangani,  a  work  belonging  to 
the  Abhi-dharma.  He  also  wrote  a  most  valuable  Pali 
compendium  of  Buddhist  doctrine  called  Visuddhi- 
magga,  'path  of  purity,'  and  a  commentary  on  the 
Dharma-pada  containing  many  parables.  He  went  to 
Ceylon  about  a.d.  430  for  the  purpose  of  retranslating 
the  Sinhalese  commentaries  into  Pali.  His  literary 
reputation  stands  very  high  in  that  island,  and  he  was 
instrumental  in  spreading  Buddhism  throughout  Burma. 

^  A  list  of  these  is  given  iu  Childers'  Dictionary. 
2  See  Introduction  to  Buddha-ghosha's  Parables,  by  Professor  Max 
Miiller;  Tumour's  Maha-vanta,  pp.  250-253. 

F 


66      THE  LAW  AND  SACRED  SCEIPTURES  OF  BUDDHISM. 

It  may  be  noted  that  the  two  important  Pali  works, 
Maha-vansa  and  Dipa-vansa  (Dvipa-vansa),  perhaps  the 
oldest  extant  histories  of  Ceylon,  are  also  fairly 
authentic  sources  for  Buddhistic  history  before  Christ. 

Turn  we  now  to  the  Mahayana  or  '  Great  Vehicle.' 
This  cannot  be  said  to  possess  any  true  Canon  distinct 
from  the  Tri-pitaka,  though  certain  Nepal ese  Sanskrit 
works,  composed  in  later  times,  are  held  to  be  canonical 
by  Northern  Buddhists. 

To  understand  this  part  of  the  subject  we  must 
revert  to  the  great  king  Asoka.  It  is  usual  to  call  this 
second  and  more  celebrated  Asoka  the  Constantino  of 
Buddhism.  Being  of  Sudra  origin  he  was  the  more 
inclined  to  favour  the  popular  teaching  of  Gautama, 
and,  as  he  was  the  first  king  who  adoj)ted  Buddhism 
openly  (about  257  B.C.)  he  doubtless  did  for  Buddhism 
veiy  much  what  Constantine  did  for  Christianity. 

The  Buddhist  system  then  spread  over  the  whole 
kingdom  of  Asoka,  and  thence  over  other  portions  of 
India,  and  even  to  some  outlying  countries.  For  grad- 
ually during  this  period  most  of  the  petty  princes  of 
India,  from  Peshawar  and  Kashmir  to  the  river  Kistna, 
and  from  Surat  to  Bengal  and  Orissa,  if  not  actually 
brought  under  subjection  to  the  king  of  Magadha,  were 
compelled  to  acknowledge  his  paramount  authority. 

This  is  proved  by  Asoka's  edicts,  wliich  are  inscribed 
on  rocks  and  stone  pillars  ^  (the  earliest  dating  from 

'  They  are  in  two  quite  distinct  kinds  of  writing.  That  at  Kapurda- 
garhi — sometimes  called  Northern  Asoka  or  Ariano-Pali — is  clearly 
Semitic,  and  traceable  to  a  Phoenician  source,  being  written  from 
right  to  left.     That  at  Girnrir,  commonly  called  Southern  Asoka  or 


asoka's  inscriptions.  67 

about  251  B.C.),  and  are  found  in  frontier  districts 
separated  from  each  other  by  enormous  distances. 

These  inscriptions  are  of  the  greatest  interest  and 
value,  as  furnishing  the  first  authentic  records  of  Indian 
history.  They  are  written  in  a  more  ancient  language 
than  the  Pali  of  Ceylon,  and  in  at  least  three  different 
dialects.  Ten  of  the  most  important  are  found  on  six 
rocks  and  five  pillars  (Lats),  though  numerous  other 
monuments  are  scattered  over  Northern  India,  from  the 
Indian  Ocean  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  from  the  Vindhya 
range  on  the  south  to  the  Khaibar  Pass  on  the  north  ^ 

Inclo-Pali,  is  read  from  left  to  right,  and  is  not  so  clearly  traceable. 
If  it  came  from  the  west  it  probably  came  through  a  Pahlavl  channel, 
and  gave  rise  to  Devanagai'I.  General  Cunningham  and  others  be- 
lieve this  latter  character  to  have  originated  independently  in  India. 
James  Prinsep  was  the  first  to  decipher  the  inscription  character. 

^  See  Dr.  R,  N.  Gust's  article  in  the  '  Journal  of  the  National  Indian 
Association'  for  June,  1879,  and  one  of  his  Selected  Essays,  and 
General  Sir  A.  Cunningham's  great  work,  'The  Corpus  Inscriptionum 
Indicarum.'  The  General  reckons  thirteen  rock  inscriptions,  seventeen 
cave  inscriptions,  and  six  inscribed  pillars. 

The  eight  most  important  rock  inscriptions  are  those  on  (i)  the  Rock 
of  Kapurda-garhi  (at  Shahbaz-garhi),in  British  Afghanistan,  forty  miles 
east-north-east  of  Peshawar — this  is  in  the  Ariauo-Pali  character ; 
(2)  the  Rock  of  Khalsi,  situated  on  the  bank  of  the  river  Jumna,  just 
where  it  leaves  the  Himfdaya  mountains,  fifteen  miles  west  of  the  hill- 
station  of  Mussourie ;  (3)  the  Rock  of  Girnar,  half-a-mile  to  the  east 
of  the  city  of  Junagurh,  in  Kathiawar ;  (4)  the  Rock  of  Dhauli,  in 
Kuttack  (properly  Katak),  twenty  miles  north  of  Jagau-nath  ;  (5)  the 
Rock  of  Jaugada,  in  a  large  old  fort  eighteen  miles  west-north-west  of 
Ganjam  in  Madras  ;  (6)  Bairat ;  (7)  Rupnath,  at  the  foot  of  the  Kaimur 
range  ;  (8)  Sahasaram,  at  the  north-east  end  of  the  Kaimur.  The  second 
Bairat  inscription  is  most  important  as  the  only  one  which  mentions 
Buddha  by  name. 

The  five  most  important  pillars  are  :  (i)  the  Pillar  at  Delhi  known 

F  2 


68     THE  LAW  AND  SACRED  SCraPTURES  OF  BUDDHISM. 

In  these  proclamations  and  edicts  (one  of  which  was 
addressed  to  the  third  Buddhist  Council),  king  Asoka, 
who  calls  himself  Priya-darsi  (Pali  Piya-dassi),  issues 
various  orders.  He  prohibits  the  slaughter  of  animals 
for  food  or  sacrifice,  gives  directions  for  what  may  be 
called  the  first  hospitals,  i,  e.  for  treating  men  and  even 
animals  medically,  appoints  missionaries  for  the  pro- 
pagation of  Buddhist  doctrines,  inculcates  peace  and 
mercy,  charity  and  toleration,  morality  and  self-denial, 
and  what  is  still  more  remarkable,  enjoins  quinquennial 
periods  of  national  humiliation  and  confession  of  sins 
by  all  classes,  accompanied  by  a  re-proclamation  of  the 
Buddha's  precepts.  Asoka,  in  fact,  became  so  zealous  a 
friend  of  Buddhism,  that  he  is  said  to  have  maintained 
64,000  Buddhist  monks  in  and  around  the  country  of 
Magadha,  which  was  on  that  account  called  the  land 
of  monasteries  (Vihara  =  the  modern  Bihar  or  Behar). 

No  doubt  it  was  Asoka's  propagation  of  Buddhism 
by  missions  in  various  countries — where  it  came  in 
contact  with  and  partly  adopted  various  already  exist- 
ing indigenous  faiths  and  superstitions — that  led  to  the 
ultimate  separation  of  the  Buddhist  system  into  the 
two  great  divisions  of  Southern  and  Northern. 

Indeed,  the  formation  of  a  Northern  School,  as  distinct 
from  a  Southern,  became  inevitable  after  the  conversion 
of  Kanishka,  the  Indo-Scythian  king  of  Kashmir,  who 

as  Firoz  Shah's  Lat ;  (2)  another  Pillar  at  Delhi,  which  was  removed 
to  Calcutta,  but  has  recently  been  restored;  (3)  the  Pillar  at  Alla- 
habad, a  single  shaft  without  capital,  of  polished  sandstone,  thirty-five 
feet  in  heiglit ;  (4)  the  Pillar  at  Lauriya,  near  Bettiah,  in  Bengal ;  (5) 
the  Pillar  at  another  Lauriya,  seventy-seven  miles  north-west  of  Patna. 


FOUETH  COUNCIL.  KANISHKA.  NOETHERN  CANON.  69 

came  from  the  North,  and  became  a  zealous  Buddhist, 
He  probably  reigned  in  the  second  half  of  the  first 
century  (a.  d.),  and  extended  his  dominions  as  far  as 
Gujarat,  Sindh,  and  even  Mathura  (see  p.  167,  note  2). 

It  was  during  Kanishka's  reign  that  a  fourth  Council^ 
was  held  at  Jalandhara  in  Kashmir,  under  Parsva  and 
Vasu-mitra.  It  consisted  of  500  monks,  who  composed 
three  Sanskrit  works  of  the  nature  of  commentaries 
(Upadesa,  Vinaya-vibhasha,  Abhidharma-vibhasha)  on 
the  three  Pali  Pitakas.  These  were  the  earliest  books 
of  the  Maha-yana  or  Northern  School,  which  afterwards 
formulated  its  more  developed  doctrines  on  the  Indus, 
while  the  Pali  Canon  of  the  South  represented  the  true 
doctrine  promulgated  on  the  Ganges. 

Kashmir  was  a  centre  of  Sanskrit  learning,  and  Kan- 
ishka,  who  was  a  patron  of  it,  became  to  Northern 
Buddhism  what  Asoka  had  been  to  Southern.  Hence 
in  process  of  time  other  Northern  Buddhist  books  were 
written  in  Sanskrit,  with  occasional  Gathas  or  stanzas 
in  an  irregular  dialect,  half  Sanskrit,  half  Prakrit. 

It  is  usual  to  enumerate  nine  Nepalese  canonical 
scriptures  (Dharmas)  : — i.Prajna  paramita,  'transcen- 
dent knowledge,'  or  an  abstract  of  metaphysical  and 
mystic  philosophy ;  2.  Ganda-vytiha  ;  3.  Dasa-bhiimis- 
vara  (describing  the  ten  stages  leading  to  Buddha- 
hood);  4.  Samadhi-raja;  5.  Laiikavatara;  6.  Saddharma- 
pundarika,  '  Lotus  of  the  True  Law ; '  7.  Tathagata- 
guhyaka  (containing  the  secret  Tantric  doctrines) ; 
8.  Lalita-vistara  (giving  a  legendary  life  of  Buddha)  ; 

^  Hioueu  Tlisang  states  that  the  three  commentaries  were  engraved 
on  sheets  of  copper  and  buried  in  a  Stupa.     Beal,  I.  152-156. 


70     THE  LAW  AND  SACRED  SCEIFTCRES  OF  BI'DDHISM, 

9.  Suvarna-prabhasa.  The  eighth  is  probably  as  old  as 
the  2nd  century  of  our  era,  and  next  comes  the  sixth. 
Tibetan  translations  were  made  of  all  of  them.  These 
extend  to  100  volumes  and  are  collectively  called 
Ka'gyur  or  Kan'gyur  (Kanjur),  We  owe  our  knowledge 
of  these  to  the  indefaticjable  Huno-arian  traveller,  Alex- 
ander  Csoma  de  Koros. 

Copies  of  the  Sanskrit  works  were  brought  to  Eng- 
land by  !Mr.  B.  H.  Hodgson.  The  sixth  has  been  trans- 
lated by  Burnouf  and  recently  by  H.  Kern.  Dr.  Ea- 
jendra-lala-mitra  has  edited  the  eighth.  As  to  the  non- 
canonical  works  M,  Senart  has  edited  part  of  the  Maha- 
vastu,  and  Professor  E.  B.  Cowell  and  !Mr.  E.  A.  Neil, 
the  Divyavadana.  They  contain  interesting  old  legends 
— some  about  the  achievements  of  Asoka,  some  about 
Buddha  himself,  some  perhaps  from  lost  Yinaya  books. 
As  to  the  PaK  written  character,  it  is  a  question 
whether  that  current  in  the  holy  land  of  Buddhism,  or 
in  Ceylon,  or  in  Siam  (Kambodia),  or  in  Burma — that 
is,  Devanagari,  Sinhalese,  Kambodian,  or  Burmese — 
should  be  used.  Many  think  Burmese  most  suited  to 
it,  Slid  in  Europe  the  Eoman  character  is  preferred. 

It  should  be  added  that  the  recitation  (Bhana, 
Sanskrit  root  Bhan,  'to  speak;'  in  Sinhalese  spelt  Bana) 
of  the  Law  is  one  of  the  principal  duties  of  monks,  the 
reciter  being  called  Bhanaka.  A  peculiar  mode  of 
intoning  is  called  Sara-bhaiina  (sara  =  svara).  The 
Buddha,  they  say,  is  not  extinct,  for  he  lives  in  the 
Dharma  and  in  the  Saiigha,  in  the  Law  and  in  the 
monks  who  recite  it.  Hence  the  importance  of  recita- 
tion in  the  Buddhist  system  (p.  84). 


LECTUEE  lY. 

Tlie  Sauglia  or  Buddhist  Order  of  Monks. 

Pee  HAPS  the  first  point  made  clear  by  the  study 
of  the  Buddhist  Scriptures  is,  that  the  Buddha  never 
seriously  thought  of  founding  a  new  system  in  direct 
opposition  to  Brahmanism  and  caste.  Even  his  Order 
or  fraternity  of  IMonks,  which  attained  a  world-wide 
celebrity  and  spread  through  a  great  part  of  Asia,  was 
a  mere  imitation  of  an  institution  already  established 
in  India.  He  himself  was  a  Hindu  of  the  Hindiis, 
and  he  remained  a  Hindu  to  the  end.  His  very  name, 
Gautama,  connected  him  with  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated Hindu  sao'es,  and  was  sisfnificant  of  his  original 
connexion  with  orthodox  Brahmanism.  It  is  true  he 
was  a  determined  opponent  of  all  Brahmanical  sacer- 
dotalism and  ceremonialism,  and  of  all  theories  about 
the  supernatural  character  of  the  Yedas  (see  p.  53) ;  but, 
being  himself  a  Hindu,  he  never  required  his  adherents 
to  make  any  formal  renunciation  of  Hinduism,  as  if 
they  had  been  converted  to  an  entirely  new  faith ;  just 
as,  if  I  may  say  so  with  all  reverence,  the  Founder 
of  the  Christian  Church,  being  Himself  a  Jew,  never 
required  His  followers  to  give  up  every  Jewish  usage. 

Nor  had  the  Buddha  any  idea  of  courting  popu- 
larity as  a  champion  of  social  equaHty  and  denouncer 
of  aU   distinctions   of  rank   and   ancient  traditions — 


72        THE  BUDDHIST  ORDER  OF  MONKS. 

a  kind  of  Tribune  of  the  people,  whose  mission  was  to 
protect  them  from  the  tyranny  of  the  upper  classes. 

There  was,  no  doubt,  at  one  time  a  prevalent  opinion 
among  scholars  that  Gautama  aimed  at  becommg  a  great 
social  reformer.  It  was  generally  supposed  that  he 
began  by  posing  before  his  fellow-countrymen  in  a  some- 
what ad  captandum  manner  as  a  popular  leader  and 
liberator,  whose  mission  was  to  deliver  them  from  the 
tyranny  of  caste.  But  such  an  opinion  is  now  known 
to  be  based  on  mistaken  assumptions.  What  ought 
rather  to  be  claimed  for  him  is  that  he  was  the  first  to 
establish  a  universal  brotherhood  (Sangha)  of  coenobite 
monks,  open  to  all  persons  of  all  ranks.  In  other 
words,  he  was  the  first  founder  of  what  may  be  called 
a  kind  of  universal  monastic  communism  (for  Buddhist 
monks  never,  as  a  rule,  lived  alone),  and  the  first  to 
affirm  that  true  enlightenment — the  knowledge  of  the 
highest  path  leading  to  saintship — was  not  confined  to 
the  Brahmans,  but  open  to  all  the  members  of  all  castes. 
This  was  the  onlv  sense  in  which  he  abolished  caste. 
His  true  followers,  however,  constituted  a  caste  of  their 
own,  distinguished  from  the  laity.  From  the  want  of  a 
more  suitable  term  we  are  forced  to  call  them  'monks  \' 

And  this  Order  of  monks  was  not  a  hierarchy.  It 
liad  no  ecclesiastical  organization  under  any  centralized 
authority.  Its  first  Head,  Gautama,  appointed  no  suc- 
cessor. It  was  not  the  depository  of  theological  learning. 
Nor  was  it  a  mediatorial  caste  of  priests,  claiming  to 

^  Our  word  monk  (derived  from  fxovaxos,  '  one  who  lives  alone,')  is 
not  quite  suitcable  unless  it  be  taken  to  mean  '  one  who  withdraws 
from  worldly  life.'     See  p.  75. 


NATUEE    OF    THE    MONKISH    BROTHERHOOD.  JT) 

mediate  between  earth  and  Leaven.  It  ought  not  to 
be  called  a  Church,  and  it  had  no  rite  of  ordination  in 
the  true  sense.  It  was  a  brotherhood,  in  which  all  were 
under  certain  obligations  of  celibacy,  moral  restraint, 
fasting,  poverty,  itineration  and  confession  to  each  other 
— all  were  dominated  by  one  idea,  and  pledged  to  the 
propagation  of  the  one  doctrine,  that  all  life  was  in  itself 
misery,  and  to  be  got  rid  of  by  a  long  course  of  discipline, 
as  not  worth  living,  whether  on  earth  or  in  heaven, 
whether  in  present  or  future  bodies.  The  founding  of 
a  monastic  brotherhood  of  this  kind  which  made  personal 
extinction  its  final  aim,  and  might  be  co-extensive  with 
the  whole  world,  was  the  Buddha's  principal  object. 

In  point  of  fact,  the  so-called  enlightenment  of  mind 
which  entitled  him  to  Buddhahood,  led  him  at  the  early 
stage  of  his  career  into  no  abstruse  or  transcendental 
region  of  thought,  but  took  a  very  practical  direction. 
It  led  him  to  see  that  an  association  of  monks  offering 
equality  of  condition  to  high  and  low,  rich  and  poor, 
and  a  haven  of  refuge  to  all  oppressed  by  the  troubles 
of  life,  would  soon  become  popular.  His  Order  started 
with  first  ten,  then  fifty,  then  sixty  original  members 
(see  p.  45),  but  its  growth  soon  surpassed  all  anticipa- 
tions, and  its  ramifications  extended  to  distant  countries, 
where,  like  the  branches  of  the  Indian  fig-tree,  they 
sent  down  roots  to  form  vigorous  independent  plants, 
even  after  the  decay  of  the  parent  stem.  On  this 
account  it  was  called  the  fraternity  of  the  four  quarters 
(Catuddisa,  Maha-vagga  VIII.  27.  5)  of  the  globe. 

In  brief,  a  carefully  regulated  monastic  brotherhood, 
which  opened  its  arms  to  all  comers  of  all  ranks,  and 


74        THE  BUDDHIST  OEDER  OF  MONKS. 

enforced  on  its  members  the  duty  of  extending  its 
boundaries  by  itinerancy,  and  by  constantly  rolling 
onward  the  wheel  of  the  true  doctrine  (Law),  constituted 
in  its  earliest  days  the  very  essence,  the  very  backbone 
of  Buddhism,  without  which  it  could  never  have  been 
propagated,  nor  even  have  held  its  own. 

But  we  repeat  that  in  this,  his  main  design,  Gautama 
was  after  all  no  innovator ;  no  introducer  of  novel  ideas. 

Monachism  had  always  been  a  favourite  adjunct  of 
the  Brahmanical  system,  and  respect  for  monastic  life 
had  taken  deep  root  among  the  people.  Thus  we  find 
it  laid  down  in  its  most  authoritative  exponent,  Manu's 
Law-book  (Book  VI),  that  every  twice-born  man  was 
bound  to  be  first  an  unmarried  student  (Brahma-cari), 
next  a  married  householder,  and  then  at  the  end  of  a 
long  life  he  was  to  abandon  wife  and  family  and  be- 
come a  Sannyasi,  '  ascetic,'  or  Bhikshu,  '  mendicant,' 
wandering  from  door  to  door.  In  fact,  it  was  through 
these  very  states  of  life  that  Gautama  himself,  as  a 
Kshatriya,  was  theoretically  bound  to  have  passed. 

Hindu  monks,  therefore,  were  numerous  before  Bud- 
dhism. They  belonged  to  various  sects,  and  took  various 
vows  of  self-torture,  of  silence,  of  fasting,  of  poverty,  of 
mendicancy,  of  celibacy,  of  abandoning  caste,  rank,  wife 
and  family.  Accordingly  they  had  various  names.  The 
Brahman  was  called  a  Sannyasi,  '  one  who  gives  up  the 
world.'  Others  were  called  Vairagi,  '  free  from  afiec- 
tions ; '  Yogi,  '  seeking  mystic  union  with  the  Deity ; ' 
Dig-ambara,  'sky-clothed,'  'naked;'  Tapasvi,  'practising 
austerities  ;'  Yati,  *  restraining  desires  ; '  Jitendriya, 
'conquering  passions ; '  Sramana, '  undergoing  discipline ;' 


PORTRAIT    OF   MR.  GAIJRI-SANKAR   TJDAT-SANKAR,    C.S.I, 
NOW   STAMI   SEI   SACCIDANANDA-SAEASTATI. 

Seated,  as  a  Bvahnian  SannyasT,  in  iiiedit.-xtic.n  (described  at  p.  xiii  uf  tlie  Preface). 

[To  face  pafie  74. 


NA:NrES    GIVEN    TO    THE    MONKS.  75 

Bhikshu,  'living  by  alms;'  Xirgrantha,  'without  ties.' 
Such  names  prove  that  asceticism  was  an  ancient  in- 
stitution. The  peculiarity  about  Gautama's  teaching  in 
regard  to  monachism  was  that  he  discouraged  ^  soHtary 
asceticism,  severe  austerities,  and  irrevocable  vows, 
though  he  enjoined  moral  restraint  in  celibate  fraterni- 
ties, conformity  to  rules  of  discipline,  upright  conduct, 
and  confession  to  each  other. 

His  usual  mode  of  designating  his  monks  was  by  the 
old  term  Bhikshu  (PaU  Bhikkhu), '  living  by  alms,'  to  in- 
dicate their  poverty.  They  were  also  called  Sramanera 
and  Sramana  (Pali  Samanera,  Samana),  as  subject  to 
monastic  discipline-.  Those  who  entered  the  stream 
leading  to  Arhatship  (p.  132)  were  called  Arya. 

The  term  Sravaka, '  hearers,'  seems  to  have  been  used 
in  the  Hina-yana  system  to  denote  great  disciples  only, 
and  especially  those  'great  disciples'  (p.  47)  of  Gautama 
w^ho  heard  the  Law  from  his  own  lips,  and  were  after- 
wards called  Sthaviras  and  became  Arhats  (p.  133). 
They  had  also  the  title  Ayushmat,  '  possessing  life.' 

"We  perceive  again  the  close  connexion  between 
Brahmanism  and  Buddhism ;  for  clearly  the  Brahma- 
cari  and  Sannyasi  of  the  one  became  the  Sramanera  or 
junior  monk,  and  Sramana  or  senior  monk  of  the  other. 

As  to  the  name  Sramana  (from  root  Sram,  '  to  toil '), 
bear  in  mind  that,  although  Buddhism  has  acquired 


^  Although  he  discouraged,  he  did  not  prohibit  monks  from  living 
solitary  lives.     See  p.  132  as  to  the  Pratveka-Buddha,  and  note,  p.  72. 

-  Some  prefer  to  derive  the  Pali  Samano  from  the  Sanskrit  root 
Sam,  '  to  be  quiet.'  Smasanika,  '  frequenting  burning  grounds,'  is  a 
later  name,  life  being  to  monks  a  kind  of  graveyard. 


76  THE    BUDDHIST    ORDER    OF    MOKKS. 

the  credit  of  being  the  easiest  religious  system  in  the 
world,  and  its  monks  are  among  the  idlest  of  men  —  as 
having  no  laborious  ceremonies  and  no  work  to  do  for  a 
livelihood — yet  in  reality  the  carrying  out  of  the  great 
object  of  extinguishing  lusts,  and  so  getting  rid  of 
the  burden  of  repeated  existences,  was  no  sinecure  if 
earnestly  undertaken.  Nor  was  it  possible  for  men 
to  lead  sedentary  lives,  whose  only  mode  of  avoiding 
starvation  was  by  house  to  house  itinerancy. 

As  to  the  form  of  admission,  there  was  no  great 
strictness  in  early  times,  when  all  applicants  were  ad- 
mitted without  inquiry.  It  was  only  when  the  Order 
increased  that  murderers,  robbers,  debtors,  soldiers  and 
others  in  the  King's  service,  lepers,  cripples,  blind,  one- 
eyed,  deaf  and  dumb,  and  consumptive  persons,  and  all 
subject  to  fits  were  rejected  \ 

Originally  it  was  enough  for  the  Buddha  to  have 
said,  '  Come  (ehi),  follow  me.'  This  alone  conferred 
discipleship.  In  time,  however,  he  commissioned  those 
he  had  himself  admitted  to  admit  others.  Then  the 
form  of  admission  to  the  brotherhood  was  divided  into 
two  stages,  marked  by  two  ceremonies,  which  have 
been  ver}-  unsuitably  compared  to  our  ordination  services 
for  deacon  and  priest.  At  any  rate  the  term  '  ordination ' 
is  wholly  misleading,  if  any  idea  of  a  priestly  commission 
or  gift  of  spiritual  powers  be  implied. 

The  youthful  layman  who  desired  admission  to  the 
first  degree,  or  that  of  a  novice,  had  to  be  at  least 


'  We  may  note  that  in  the  '  Clay-Cart,'  a  Sanskrit  drama  written  in 
an  early  century  of  our  era,  a  gambler  becomes  a  Buddhist  monk. 


ADMISSION    TO    THE    MONKHOOD.  77 

fifteen  years  old  ^  (Maha-v°  I.  50)  ;  and  such  novices 
had  to  be  at  least  twenty  (from  conception)  before  the 
second  rite  or  admission  to  the  full  monkhood. 

The  first  rite  was  called  pravrajya  (pabbajja),  '  going 
forth  from  home '  (Maha-v°  I.  1 2).  Persons  admitted 
to  this  first  deofree  of  monkhood  were  called  Sramanera 
(Samanera),  'novices,'  though  they  were  also  called 
'new'  or  'junior  monks'  (Navako  Bhikkhu).  They 
might  be  admitted  by  a  senior  monk  without  appearing 
before  any  formal  conclave ;  but  not  without  the  con- 
sent of  their  parents,  and  not  without  attaching  them- 
selves to  a  religious  teacher  (upadhyaya)  after  their 
admission.  It  is  said  that  Gautama  was  urged  by  his 
father  Suddhodana  to  require  the  sanction  of  parents, 
in  rather  touching  and  remarkable  words,  to  the  follow- 
ing effect : — 

'  The  love  for  a  son  cuts  into  the  cuticle  (chavi) ; 
having  cut  into  the  cuticle,  it  cuts  into  the  inner  skin 
(camma) ;  having  cut  into  the  inner  skin,  it  cuts  into 
the  flesh  ;  having  cut  into  the  flesh,  it  cuts  into  the 
tendons  (nharu  or  naharu)  ;  having  cut  into  the  tendons, 
it  cuts  into  the  bones  ;  having  cut  into  the  bones,  it 
reaches  the  marrow  (atthi-miiija),  and  abides  in  the 
marrow.  Let  not  Pabbajja,  therefore,  be  performed  on 
a  son  without  his  father's  and  mother's  permission ' 
(Maha-vagga  I.  54). 

The  admission  ceremony  of  a  novice  was  extremely 

^  I  hear  from  Dr.  Oldenberg  that  the  mention  in  his  '  Buddha '  of 
twelve  yeai-s  as  the  minimum  is  a  mistake.  The  age  of  eight  men- 
tioned by  Prof.  Ehys  Davids  as  the  minimum,  must  be  a  modern  rule 
peculiar  to  Ceylon,  if  it  be  admissible  at  all. 


78  THE   BUDDHIST    ORDER    OF    MONKS. 

simple,  and  confined  to  certain  acts  and  words  on  tlie 
part  of  the  candidate,  witnessed  by  any  competent  monk. 
The  Sahgha,  as  a  body,  took  no  part  in  it.  The  novice 
first  cut  off  his  hair,  put  on  three  yellow  ragged 
garments  (tri-civara),  adjusted  the  upper  robe  so  as 
to  leave  the  right  shoulder  bare,  and  then  before  a 
monk  repeated  three  times  the  three-refuge  formula  : 

'  I  go  for  refuge  to  the  Buddha  (Buddham  saranam  gacchami).' 
'  I  go  for  refuge  to  the  Law  (Dharmam  saranam  gacchami).' 
'  I  go  for  refuge  to  the  Order  (Saiigham  saranam  gacchami).' 

Very  remarkably,  this,  the  only  prayer  of  true  Bud- 
dhism, resembled  the  Gayatri  or  sacred  prayer  of  the 
Veda  (repeated  by  the  Brahma-cari)  in  consisting  of 
three  times  eight  syllables.  But  if  the  Buddhist  novice 
had  a  right  to  the  Brahma-cari' s  sacred  cord  (upavita), 
this  was  probably  abandoned  on  admission.  He  was 
then  instructed  in  the  Ten  Precepts  (Dasa-sila  or  sikkha- 
pada),  which  were  really  ten  prohibitions  (Maha-vagga 

1.  56),  requiring  ten  abstinences  (veramani)  : — 

I.  from   destroying    life    (panatipato  =  pranatipata)  ; 

2.  from  taking  anything  not  given  (adinnadana)  ;  3. 
from  unchastity  (abrahmacariya)  ;  4,  from  speaking 
falsely  (musa-vada  =  mrisha-vada)  ;  5.  from  drinking 
strong  drinks  (sura) ;  6.  from  eating  at  forbidden  times 
(vikala-bhojana)  ;  7.  from  dancing,  singing,  music,  and 
worldly  spectacles  (visfika)  ;  8.  from  garlands,  scents, 
unguents  or  ornaments ;  9.  from  the  use  of  a  high  or 
broad  bed ;  i  o.  from  receiving  gold  or  silver.  The 
prohibition  not  to  receive  money,  even  in  return  for  re- 
ligious teaching  or  any  suppjosed  spiritual  benefits  con- 
ferred, was  held  to  be  most  important,  and  was  for  a 


ADMISSION   TO    THE    MONKHOOD.  79 

long  time  obeyed,  though  in  the  end  monasteries  be- 
came owners  of  large  property  and  landed  estates. 

Of  course  the  Upasampada,  or  admission  to  full 
monkhood  (described  Maha-vagga  I.  76),  was  a  more 
formal  ceremony.  A  conclave  (Sangha)  of  at  least  ten 
monks  was  required.  The  candidate  had  to  appear 
before  them,  but  was  first  instructed  by  some  competent 
and  learned  monk  as  to  the  nature  of  the  rite  and  the 
questions  he  would  have  to  answer.  This  instructor 
also  directed  him  to  choose  some  other  monk  competent 
to  act  as  his  Upadhyaya  (upajjhaya)  or  teacher  for 
five  years  after  his  admission,  and  made  him  provide 
himself  with  an  alms-bowl  and  with  the  usual  yellow 
monkish  vestments.  Then  his  first  instructor  presented 
himself  before  the  conclave  and  informed  them  that  the 
candidate  was  ready  to  be  admitted.  Thereupon  the 
novice  came  forward,  adjusted  his  upper  garment  so  as 
to  cover  the  left  shoulder,  bowed  down  before  the  feet 
of  the  assembled  monks,  seated  himself  on  the  ground, 
and,  raising  his  joined  hands,  asked  three  times  for 
admission  to  the  full  monkhood,  thus  : — '  I  entreat  the 
Sangha  for  full  monkhood  (Upasampada),  have  com- 
passion on  me  and  uproot  me  (uUumpatu  mam)  from 
the  world,'  repeated  thrice. 

Thereupon  he  was  questioned  [not,  as  in  our  Ordi- 
nation Service  :  'Are  you  inwardly  moved  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  take  upon  you  this  office  1 '  Not :  '  Will  you 
apply  all  your  diligence  to  frame  and  fashion  your  own 
life  and  that  of  your  family  so  as  to  be  wholesome 
examples'?'  but]  thus: — Are  you  free  from  leprosy, 
boils,  consumption,  fits,  etc.  ^,     Are  you  a  male  'i     Are 


8o        THE  BUDDHIST  ORDER  OF  MONKS. 

you  a  free  man  and  not  in  the  royal  service  1  Are 
you  free  from  debts  ?  Have  you  the  consent  of  your 
parents'?  Are  you  full  twenty  years  old  ?  Have  you 
an  alms-bowl  and  vestments  "?  What  is  your  name  1 
What  is  your  teacher's  name  ? 

If  the  answers  were  satisfactory  the  candidate 
was  admitted.  After  admission  no  prayer  was  pro- 
nounced [such  as  in  our  Ordination  Service  :  '  We  be- 
seech Thee,  merciful  Father,  send  on  Thy  servant 
Thy  heavenly  blessing  that  he  may  be  clothed  with 
righteousness'^]  ;  but  he  was  informed  that  he  was  to 
trust  to  only  four  Eesources  (nissaya),  and  to  abstain 
from  four  chief  forbidden  acts  (akaraniyani).  These 
four  Eesources  and  four  Prohibitions  were  then  com- 
municated to  him  thus  : — 

First  the  four  Eesources  as  follow : — (i)  Broken 
morsels  given  in  alms  for  food ;  (2)  Eags  from  a  dust- 
heap  for  clothes  ;  (3)  Roots  of  trees  for  an  abode  ; 
(4)  Liquid  putrefying  excreta  of  cows  for  medicine. 
Note,  however,  that,  in  practice,  indulgences  (atirekha- 
labha)  were  in  all  four  cases  allowed  ;  such  as,  better 
food  when  it  happened  to  be  given,  or  when  invited  to 
dinner  by  rich  laymen  ;  linen,  cotton,  or  woollen  gar- 
ments, if  dyed  yellow  and  in  three  pieces  (but  only  one 
change  was  allowed)  ;  houses,  huts,  or  caves  to  dwell 
in,  when  not  itinerating ;  ghee,  honey,  or  molasses  when 
out  of  health  (Maha-v°  I.  30.  4). 

Next  the  four  chief  Prohibitions  (compare  the  Ten 
Prohibitions, p.  78),  viz.  : — (i)  Unchastity  and  sexual  acts 

^  I  give  these  quotations  to  show  the  uusuitableness  of  the  term 
*  Ordination  '  applied  to  Pabhujja  and  Upasampada  in  the  S.  B.  E. 


ADMISSION   TO    THE    MONKHOOD.  8 1 

of  any  kind ;  (2)  Taking  anything  not  given,  even  a 
blade  of  grass ;  (3)  Killing  any  living  thing,  even  an 
ant,  or  worm,  or  plant ;  (4)  Falsely  claiming  the  extra- 
ordinary powers  of  a  perfected  saint  (uttarimanussa- 
dhamma.     Maha-v°  I.  78.  2). 

Clearly  there  were  great  temptations  to  gain  celebrity 
by  claiming  such  powers,  or  else  this  fourth  prohibition 
would  not  have  terminated  the  ceremony. 

So  soon  as  a  man  was  admitted  to  full  monkhood,  he 
went  through  a  five  years'  course  of  instruction  in  the 
entire  doctrine  and  discipline,  under  the  preceptor 
(Upadhyaya,  Acarya)  who  had  been  previously  chosen 
and  was  required  to  be  of  at  least  ten  years'  standing. 

This  was  a  modification  of  the  Brahmanical  rule  that 
a  student  (Brahma-cari)  should  study  under  his  preceptor 
for  thirty- six  years,  or  less,  until  he  knew  the  Veda. 

The  full  Buddhist  monk  had  in  theory  to  dwell 
under  trees  or  in  huts  formed  of  leaves  (pan-sala  = 
panna-sala  =  parna-sala) ;  but  practically  he  resided  in 
collections  of  simple  mud  or  brick  tenements,  in  cells, 
or  in  rows  of  caves  hewn  out  of  rocky  hills.  At  any 
rate,  collections  of  monastic  dwellings,  called  Viharas  \ 
were  his  usual  abode  during  Vassa  (or  the  rainy  season, 
see  p.  82) ;  and  at  such  times  he  had  fellow-monks 
(saddhiviharika)  living  in  companies  around  him,  or 
in  the  same  monastery. 

Strict  discipline  was  supposed  to  be  enforced,  and  yet 

^  In  Malia-vagga  I.  30.  4,  five  kinds  of  dwellings  are  named  besides 
ti-ees,  viz.  Viharas,  Addhayogas  (a  kind  of  house  shaped  like  Garuda), 
storied  dwellings  (prasada),  mansions  (harmya),  and  caves  (guha). 

G 


82        THE  BUDDHIST  OEDEE,  OF  MONKS. 

there  was  no  central  authority,  no  Chief  Hierarch,  no 
Archbishop  whom  he  was  bound  '  reverently  to  obey.' 

Offences  against  the  four  forbidden  acts  were  called 
Parfijika  apatti,  '  offences  meriting  expulsion  from  the 
community  of  monks  (Saiigha).' 

Then  there  were  thirteen  Saiighadisesa  apatti,  as 
well  as  certain  Dukkata  or  less  serious  offences,  re- 
quiring only  confession  before  the  Sarigha,  and  dealt 
with  by  a  Saiigha-kamma,  or  act  of  a  conclave  of  monks 
imposing  some  penance.  There  were  penances  (Prayas- 
citta)  for  lying,  prevarication,  abusive  language,  de- 
stroying vegetable  or  animal  life,  etc.  (see  Patimokkha, 
Padittiya  dhamma,  and  pp.  62,  84).  The  following 
practices  were  also  incumbent  on  all  monks  : — 

(i)  The  wearing  vestments  given  by  laymen  (not 
purchased)  and  consisting  of  three  lengths  of  yellow- 
coloured  rags ;  or,  if  entire  lengths  of  cotton  cloths  were 
given,  the  saleable  value  had  to  be  destroyed  by  tearing 
them  into  at  least  three  pieces,  and  then  sewing  them 
together;  (2)  The  owning  no  possessions  except  the 
three  cloths,  a  girdle,  bowl,  razor,  needle,  and  water- 
strainer  to  prevent  the  swallowing  of  animalculae ; 
(3)  The  living  only  on  food  collected  in  a  wooden  bowl 
by  dail}'  going  from  house  to  house,  but  without  ever 
asking  for  it ;  (4)  The  eating  at  mid-day  the  one  meal 
so  collected  and  at  no  other  time  ;  (5)  The  fasting  on 
four  prescribed  days ;  (6)  The  abiding  in  one  spot  for 
three  or  four  months  during  Vassa,  '  the  rains '  (from 
middle  of  June  to  middle  of  October),  when  itineration 
%vould  involve  trampling  on  vegetable  and  insect  life ; 
(7)  The  refraining  from  a  recumbent  posture  under  all 


monk's  daily  life.  83 

circumstances ;  (8)  The  visiting  cremation-grounds  for 
meditation  on  the  corruption  of  the  body. 

In  truth  it  might  almost  be  said  that  in  every 
movement  and  action,  in  waking  and  sleeping,  in 
dressing  and  undressing,  in  standing  and  sitting,  in 
going  out  and  coming  in,  in  fasting  and  eating,  in 
speaking  and  not  speaking,  the  Buddhist  monk  had 
to  submit  to  the  most  stringent  regulations. 

It  was  a  noteworthy  feature  in  Buddhist  monachism 
that  monks  were  never  allowed  to  appear  in  public  in  a 
state  of  even  semi-nudity.  '  Properly  clad,'  says  the 
Sekhiya  dhamma  (4),  '  must  the  monk  itinerate.'  *  Not 
nakedness,'  says  the  Dhamma-pada  (141),  'can  purify 
a  mortal  who  has  not  overcome  desires.'  The  monk's 
three  garments  (ticlvara  =  tri-clvara)  were  an  inner 
one  (antara-vasaka),  another  wound  about  the  thighs 
(sanghati)  and  an  upper  robe  (uttarasaiiga)  worn  loosely 
and  brought  round  over  the  left  shoulder.  This  consti- 
tuted an  important  distinction  between  the  Buddhist 
monks  and  the  Jaina  and  other  naked  ascetics  whose 
want  of  decency  the  Buddha  condemned. 

The  Buddhist  monk's  daily  life  probably  began  by 
meditation  and  by  his  reciting  or  intoning  (Bhana,  Sara- 
bhanna)  portions  of  the  Law,  or  by  hearing  it  recited, 
followed  perhaps  by  lessons  in  doctrine,  or  by  discussions 
or  by  confessions.  Next  came  itineration  for  food,  fol- 
lowed by  the  one  noon-day  meal.  Then  came  rest  and 
further  meditation  and  recitation,  while  possibly  the 
senior  monks  preached  to  laymen.  Such  preaching  took 
place  especially  during  Yassa.  In  later  times  the  daily 
duties  included  offering  flowers,  etc.,  at  sacred  shrines, 

G  2 


84        THE  BUDDHIST  ORDER  OF  MONKS. 

and  repeating   so-called   prayers,   which   were  merely 
forms  of  words  used  as  charms. 

To  illustrate  the  immensely  meritorious  efficacy  of 
constant  recitation  of  the  Law,  a  story  is  told  of  five 
hundred  bats  that  lived  in  a  cave  where  two  monks 
daily  recited  the  Dharma.  These  bats  gained  such 
merit  by  simply  hearing  the  sound  that  when  they  died 
they  were  all  re-born  as  men  and  ultimately  as  gods. 

Doubtless  quarrels  and  faults  of  omission  and  commis- 
sion occurred  among  the  monks,  especially  during  their 
residence  together  in Vassa  (miscalled  the  Buddhist  Lent). 
We  read  of  six  monks  named  Chabbaggiya  who  were  con- 
stantly committing  offences.  Hence  a  day  called  Pava- 
rana  (Pravarana),  '  invitation,'  was  kept  at  the  end  of 
Vassa,  when  all  were  invited  to  assemble  for  confession 
and  for  felicitation,  if  harmony  had  been  preserved. 

An  important  part  of  every  monk's  duties  was  confes- 
sion on  Uposatha  (Upavasatha)  or  fast-days  (miscalled 
the  Buddhist  sabbaths) — wliich  were  kept  at  first  on  two 
days  in  each  month,  at  full  and  new  moon  (correspond- 
ing to  the  Darsaand  Paurnamasa  days  of  Brahmanism), 
and  afterwards  also  at  the  intermediate  days  of  quarter- 
moon.  On  these  four  Uposatha  days  the  Patimokkha 
or  general  confession  (p.  62)  was  recited.  The  confes- 
sion was  by  monks  to  each  other,  not  by  laymen  to 
monks,  though  the  four  days  were  also  observed  by 
laymen,  and  w^e  know  that  Asoka  enjoined  periodical 
ceremonies,  and  expression  of  sorrow  for  sins  on  the 
part  of  all  his  subjects.  Such  confession  did  not  cause 
remission  of  sin  or  absolution  in  our  sense,  but  only 
release  from  evil  consequences  by  penances  (p.  62). 


THE    SANGHA   OR    COMMUNITY   OF   MONKS.  85 

We  have  learnt,  then,  that  Buddhist  monks  were  not 
under  irrevocable  vows.  They  undertook  to  obey  rules 
of  discipline,  but  took  no  actual  vows — not  even  of 
obedience  to  a  superior.  Buddhist  monkhood  was  purely 
voluntary,  so  that  all  were  free  to  come  and  go.  It  had 
nothing  hereditary  about  it  like  the  rank  of  a  Brahman. 

We  have  also  learnt,  that  the  term  '  priest '  is  not 
suitably  applied  to  Buddhist  monks.  For  true  Bud- 
dhism has  no  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  no  clergy,  no 
priestly  ordination ;  no  divine  revelation,  no  ceremonial 
rites,  no  prayer,  no  worship  in  the  proper  sense  of  these 
terms.  Each  man  was  a  priest  to  himself  in  so  far  as 
he  depended  on  himself  alone  for  internal  sanctificaiion. 

Evidently,  too,  all  Buddhist  monks  were  integral  parts 
of  one  organic  whole.  It  is  true  that  in  the  end  they 
were  collected  in  various  monasteries,  each  of  which 
practically  became  an  independent  Saiigha  (each  under 
one  Head).  But  in  theory  all  were  parts  of  one  and  the 
same  brotherhood,  which  was  republican  and  communistic 
in  its  constitution.  And  this  word  Sarigha  cannot  be 
correctly  rendered  by  '  church,'  if  by  that  term  is  meant 
an  ecclesiastical  body  with  legislative  functions,  embrac- 
ing clergy  and  laity  united  in  a  common  faith  and  under 
one  Head  ;  for  as  founded  by  the  Buddha,  it  was  not 
this.  It  was  simply  a  vast  fraternity  intended  to  em- 
brace all  monks  of  the  four  quarters  (caturdisa)  of  the 
world,  from  the  Buddha  himself  and  the  perfected  Arhat 
(p.  133),  to  every  monk  of  the  lowest  degree,  but  not 
a  single  layman.  Indeed  in  its  highest  sense  the  Sahgha 
comprised  only  true  Nirvana-seeking  monks  who  had 
entered  the  paths  of  true  sanctification  (p.  132). 


86        THE  BUDDHIST  ORDER  OF  MONKS. 

And  here  observe  that,  notwitlistanding  the  stigma 
attached  to  unmarried  women  in  India,  Gautama  in  the 
end  permitted  an  Order  of  Nuns  (Pali  Bhikkhuni)  and 
female  novices  (Samanerl,  p.  47).  The  CuUa-vagga 
(X.  I.  3)  relates  how  women  were  indebted  to  the 
intercession  of  a  monk,  Gautama's  cousin  Ananda,  for 
permission  to  form  an  Order,  and  how  Maha-prajapati, 
the  Buddha's  nurse  (p.  24),  became  the  first  nun ; 
yet  when  Ananda  first  asked :  '  How  are  we  monks  to 
behave  when  we  see  women  ?'  G-autama  replied :  '  Don't 
see  them.'  '  But  if  we  should  see  them,  what  are  we  to 
do  ? '  '  Don't  speak  to  them.'  '  But  if  they  speak  to  us, 
what  then?'  'Let  your  thoughts  be  fixed  in  deep 
meditation'  (Sati  upatthapetabba.     Maha-parin°  V.  23). 

Clearly  the  Buddha  was  originally  a  misogynist  as 
well  as  a  misogamist,  and  wished  his  followers  to  be 
misogynists  also.  Even  when  he  had  been  induced  to 
admit  the  justice  of  the  plea  for  women's  rights,  he 
placed  his  nuns  under  the  direction  of  monks.  They 
could  only  be  admitted  by  monks,  and  were  subject  to 
the  male  Order  in  all  matters  of  discipline.  They  were 
under  eight  special  obligations,  one  of  which  was  to 
rise  up  in  the  presence  of  a  monk,  even  if  a  novice. 

The  Buddha's  exhortation  to  the  first  nun  is  note- 
worthy : — '  Whatsoever,  0  Gotami  (Maha-prajapati), 
conduces  to  absence  of  passion,  to  absence  of  pride,  to 
wishing  for  little  and  not  for  much,  to  seclusion  and  not 
to  love  of  society,  to  earnest  effort  and  not  to  indolence, 
to  contentment  and  not  to  querulousness,  verily  that  is 
the  true  doctrine'  (CullaV  X.  5). 

It  was  certainly  a  great  gain  for  a  woman  when  she 


LAY-BRETHREN.  8  7 

was  permitted  to  become  a  nun  (or  a  Theri)  ;  for,  as 
a  nun,  she  could  even  attain  Arhatsliip.  This  is  clearly 
laid  down  in  Culla-vagga  X,  i.  3.  4.  No  woman,  how- 
ever, could  attain  to  Buddhahood  without  being  born 
as  a  man,  so  that  it  could  scarcely  be  said  that  in 
Buddha  there  is  '  neither  male  nor  female.' 

Such,  then,  was  the  monachism  which  constituted  the 
very  pith  and  marrow  of  Buddhism.  All  truly  en- 
lightened disciples  of  Buddha  were  monks  or  nuns. 

Let  us  not  forget,  however,  that  in  practice  Buddhism 
admitted  lay-brothers,  lay-sisters,  married  householders 
and  working-men,  as  necessary  adjuncts. 

Yet  they  were  only  appendages.  Of  course  the 
Buddha  knew  very  well  that  it  was  not  possible  to 
enforce  celibacy  on  all  his  followers.  He  knew 
that  having  prohibited  his  monks  from  making  or 
taking  money  or  holding  property,  they  would  have  to 
depend  on  lay-associates  and  householders  for  food, 
clothing,  and  habitation,  and  that,  if  every  layman  were 
to  become  a  monk,  there  would  be  no  work  done,  no 
food  produced,  no  children  born,  and  in  time  no 
humanity — nay,  no  Buddhism — left. 

Universal  monkhood,  in  short,  might  have  been  a  con- 
summation to  be  aimed  at  in  some  Utopia  ;  but  was 
practically  unattainable.  In  fact  Gautama  had  to  take 
the  world  as  he  found  it,  and  the  very  idea  of  a  world 
perpetuating  itself — according  to  his  own  theory  of  a 
constant  succession  of  birth,  decay,  and  reproduction — 
implied  that  a  youth,  on  reaching  manhood,  married, 
had  children,  worked  and  earned  a  livelihood  for  their 
support.     He  could  not  impose  this  burden  on  others. 


88        THE  BUDDHIST  OKDEK  OF  MONKS. 

Besides,  the  generality  of  people  were  in  Gautama's 
day  what  they  are  in  India  now-a-days — bent  on  early 
marriage,  and  resolute  in  working  hard  for  a  livelihood. 
Even  Manu  only  enjoined  celibacy  on  young  religious 
students  and  on  old  men,  though  there  were  occasional 
cases  of  perpetual  (naishthika)  Brahma-carins. 

Without  dovibt,  ceUbacy  in  instances  of  extraordinary 
sanctity  has  always  commanded  respect  in  India ;  but 
in  no  country  of  the  world  has  married  life  been  so 
universally  honoured.  It  is  not  very  likely,  then,  that 
the  following  sentiments,  enunciated  by  the  Buddha, 
could  have  met  with  general  approval : — 

'A  wise  man  should  avoid  married  life  (abrahma- 
6ariyam)  as  if  it  were  a  burning  pit  of  live  coals' 
(Dharamika-Sutta  21). 

'  Full  of  hindrances  is  married  life,  defiled  by  pas- 
sion. How  can  one  who  dwells  at  home  live  the  higher 
life  in  all  its  purity  1 '  (Tevijja-Sutta  47). 

And  in  reality  Buddha's  anti-matrimonial  doctrines 
did  excite  opposition.  The  people  murmured  and  said, 
'  He  is  come  to  bring  childlessness  among  us,  and  widow- 
hood, and  destruction  of  family-life.'  Indeed,  the  two 
facts — first,  that  the  foundations  of  Buddhism  were 
not  laid  (as  those  of  Christianity  notably  are),  on  the 
hallowed  hearth  of  home  and  on  the  sacred  rock  of 
family-life  with  its  daily  round  of  honest  work  ;  and — 
secondly,  that  the  precept  enjoining  monkhood  and 
abstinence  from  marriage  was  not  combined  with  any 
organized  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  under  a  central  govern- 
ment, are  sufficient  to  account  for  the  circumstance  that 
Buddhism  never  gained  any  real  stability  in  India. 


DUTIES    OF    LAY-BRETHREN.  89 

No  doubt  lay-brethren  were  always  welcomed ;  but 
they  were  bound  to  Buddhism  by  very  slender  ties  in 
regard  to  dogma,  and  were  only  expected  to  conform 
to  the  simplest  possible  code  of  morality. 

Probably  the  only  form  of  admission  for  a  layman  was 
the  repetition  of  the  24  syllables  of  the  three-refuge 
(tri-sarana)  formula : — '  I  go  for  refuge  to  the  Buddha, 
his  Law  and  his  Order '  (p.  78).  It  was  of  course 
understood  that  he  was  to  abstain  from  the  five  gross 
sins  (p.  126),  but  he  was  already  bound  to  do  so  by 
the  rules  of  Hindu  caste  and  family-religion.  The 
chief  test  of  his  Buddhism  was  his  readiness  to  serve 
the  monks.  It  was  for  this  reason,  I  think,  that  lay- 
adherents  were  not  called,  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, Sravakas,  '  Hearers,'  but  simply  Upasakas, '  Ser- 
vers,' and  in  the  case  of  women  Upasikas.  They  could 
not  be  called  disciples  of  Buddha  in  the  truest  sense, 
unless  they  entered  his  monastic  Order. 

Of  course  the  majority  of  Buddhist  householders 
never  cared  to  do  this.  Their  chief  religion  consisted 
in  giving  food  and  clothing,  earned  by  daily  toil,  to  the 
monks  ^  If  they  failed  in  this,  there  was  only  one 
punishment.  They  were  forbidden  the  privilege  of 
giving  at  all,  and  so  of  accumulating  a  store  of  merit. 
No  monk  was  allowed  to  ask  them  for  a  single  thing. 
Of  course,  too,  the  majority  of  Buddhist  householders 


^  Comparing  "Western  with  Eastern  Monacliism,  I  may  remark 
that  the  chief  duty  of  the  lay-brethren  attached  to  the  Cistercian 
monastery  at  Fountain's  Abbey  was  to  wait  upon  the  monks,  procure 
food  and  cook  it  for  them  ;  and  we  learn  from  the  Times  of  December 
24,  1885,  that  the  same  duty  devolved  on  the  Carthusian  lay-brothers. 


90         THE  BUDDHIST  ORDER  OF  MONKS. 

were  worldly-minded  ;  they  were  no  believers  in  ultra- 
pessimistic  views  of  life.  They  looked  for  a  life  in 
some  heaven,  not  Nirvana.  Yet  in  theory  all  laymen 
might  enter  the  paths  of  sanctification  (p.  132),  and 
thousands  of  earnest  men  are  said  to  have  done  so  \ 

A  layman's  progress,  however,  towards  Arhatship,  ex- 
cept through  monkhood  and  abandoning  the  world,  was 
almost  hopelessly  barred.  At  page  264  of  the  Milinda- 
panha  it  is  implied  that  an  earnest  layman  might  be- 
come an  Arhat,  even  while  still  a  layman,  but  he  had 
either  to  enter  monkhood  or  else  to  pass  away  in 
Pari-nirvana  (p.  140)  at  the  moment  of  becoming  so. 

The  best  proof  of  the  truth  of  this  view  of  the 
matter  is,  that  after  a  layman  had  attached  himself 
to  the  Buddha,  the  Law,  and  the  Order,  he  was  not 
required  to  undergo  any  initiatory  ceremony,  like  bap- 
tism, or  to  receive  any  stamp  of  membership,  or  to 
assume  a  peculiar  dress,  or  to  give  up  all  belief  in  his 
family  religion,  or  caste-customs.  In  short,  he  did  not 
as  a  lay-brother  break  entirely  with  Hinduism. 

That  universal  tolerance  was  of  the  very  essence  of 
Buddhism  is  indicated  by  Asoka's  twelfth  edict: — 'The 
beloved  of  the  gods  honours  all  forms  of  religious 
faith — there  ought  to  be  reverence  for  one's  own  faith 
and  no  reviling  of  that  of  others.'     Compare  p.  126. 

Nor  did  Gautama  himself  ever  set  an  example  of 
intolerance.  He  never  railed  at  the  Brahmans.  He 
treated  them  with  respect,  and  taught  others  to  do  so  ; 


^  The  Chronicles  of  Ceylon  state  that  80,000  laymen  entered  the 
paths  in  Kashmir.     Compare  Divyfivadana,  p.  166,  line  12  ;  jj.  271,  12. 


LATER   HIERARCHY.  9 1 

and  even  adopted  the  title  Brahmana  foi'  his  own  saints 
and  Arhats  (Dhamma-pada  383-423). 

What  he  opposed  was  priestcraft  and  superstition, 
not  Brahmanism  ;  as  indeed  other  reformers  had  done 
before  him.  Probably  the  great  receptivity  of  Buddhism 
was  one  of  the  causes  that  led  to  its  decay  in  India. 

Yet  Gautama's  victory  over  one  of  the  most  inveterate 
propensities  in  human  nature — the  tendency  to  seek 
salvation  through  a  mediatorial  caste  of  priests — was  a 
wonderful  achievement.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  his  followers  in  other  countries  became  re-entan- 
gled in  a  network  of  priestcraft,  even  more  enslaving 
than  that  out  of  which  he  had  rescued  them. 

Koeppen,  Khys  Davids,  and  other  writers  have  well 
shown  that  the  Buddhism  of  Tibet,  with  its  Pope- 
like grand  Lamas — its  cardinals  and  abbots,  monks  and 
mendicant  friars,  nuns  and  novices,  canonized  saints 
and  angelic  hosts,  temples  and  costly  shrines,  monas- 
teries and  nunneries,  images  and  pictures,  altars  and 
relics,  robes  and  mitres,  rosaries  and  consecrated  water, 
litanies  and  chants,  processions  and  pilgrimages,  confes- 
sions and  penances,  bell-ringing  and  incense — is  in  every- 
thing, except  doctrine,  almost  a  counterpart  of  the 
Romish  system.  How  little  could  the  Buddha  have  fore- 
seen such  a  development  of  his  brotherhood  of  monks, 
whose  chief  duties  were  meditation  and  itineration  ! 

And  what  is  to  be  said  of  the  present  condition  of 
the  Buddhist  monkhood'?  Do  we  see  anywhere  evi- 
dences of  that  enlightenment  of  mind  which  Buddhism 
claims  as  its  chief  characteristic  1 

When  I  was  travelling  in  Ceylon,  I  met  a  few  learned 


92        THE  BUDDHIST  ORDER  OF  MONKS. 

monks,  but  the  majority  seemed  to  me  idle,  ignorant, 
and  indifferent. 

In  Burma  the  monks  are  called  Pungis  (Phongies), 
and  are  a  little  more  active.  Every  youth  in  Burma 
is  supposed  for  a  time  to  inhabit  a  monastery. 

In  Tibet  the  monks  are  called  Lamas  (a  lower  title 
being  Gelong)  and  constitute  a  large  proportion  of  the 
population.  They  are  slaves  to  gross  superstitions. 
Some  are  mere  devil-charmers,  a  belief  in  the  power  of 
evil  spirits  being  the  chief  religion  of  the  people. 

In  China  the  monks  are  called  Ho-shang  (or  Ho-sang) . 
They  constitute  the  only  section  of  the  population  who 
have  a  right  to  be  called  Buddhists,  though,  after  all, 
they  are  mere  pseudo-Buddhists.  Professor  Legge  in- 
forms me  that  he  has  known  a  few  learned  men  among 
them,  and  learned  works  have  been  written  by  them. 
But  the  general  testimony  of  Europeans  in  China  is 
that  the  mass  of  the  monks  there  are  simply  drones,  or 
aimless  dreamers,  who  go  through  their  repetitions  by 
rote.  Almost  all  are  conspicuous  for  apathy,  inertness, 
and  a  vacant  idiotic  expression  of  countenance. 

Clearly  we  have  in  their  condition  an  example  of  the 
fact  that  even  moral  restraint,  if  carried  to  the  extreme 
of  extinguishing  all  the  natural  affections  and  desires, 
must  inevitably  be  followed  by  a  Nemesis.  Surely  we 
have  in  these  monkish  fraternities  an  illustration  of  the 
truth  that  any  transgression  of  the  laws  of  nature, 
common-sense,  and  reason — any  suppression  of  the 
primaiy  instincts  of  humanity,  must  in  the  end  incur 
the  penalty  attached  to  every  violation  of  the  eternal 
ordinances  of  God. 


LECTUEE  y. 

The  Philosophical  Doctrines  of  Buddhism. 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  points  in  the  early 
history  of  Buddhistic  thought  is  that  while  Gautama 
Buddha  denied  the  existence  of  Brahma  as  a  personal 
Creator,  and  repudiated  the  Veda  and  all  Vedic  sacrifices 
and  ceremonial  observances,  he  at  the  same  time  made 
the  philosophical  teaching  of  the  Brahmans  the  point  of 
departure  for  his  own  peculiar  philosophical  teaching. 

Another  noteworthy  point  is  that  while  Buddhism 
was  undoubtedly  a  modification  of  philosophical  Brah- 
manism,  the  latter  was  also  modified  by  an  interchange 
with  Buddhistic  ideas. 

It  may  certainly  be  questioned  whether  Gautama 
himself,  in  the  early  stages  of  his  career,  ever  caused 
much  offence  to  the  most  orthodox  Brahmans  by  the 
free  expression  of  his  opinions.  He  did  not  spare  either 
his  criticism  or  sarcasm,  but  it  is  well  known  that  the 
Brahmans  were  not  only  tolerant  of  criticism;  they 
w^ere  equally  critical  themselves,  and  delighted  in  con- 
troversial discussions,  as  they  do  to  this  day. 

In  the  Tevijja-Sutta  an  account  is  given  of  a  dis- 
cussion in  which,  though  Gautama  expressed  himself 
strono-lv,  he  does  not  seem  to  have  excited  any  wrath 
in  his  opponent — a  Brahman  named  Vasettha. 


94      THE    rniLOSOPHICAL   DOCTRINES    OF   BUDDHISM. 

The  argument  attributed  to  the  Buddha  is  so  re- 
markable that  a  portion  of  it  may  be  given  here  : — 

*  Then  you  say,  Vasettha,  that  not  one  of  the  Brah- 
mans,  or  of  their  teachers,  or  of  their  pupils,  even 
up  to  the  seventh  generation,  has  ever  seen  Brahman 
(the  God  of  the  Brahmans)  face  to  face.  And  that 
even  the  Rishis  of  old,  the  utterers  of  the  ancient 
verses,  which  the  Brahmans  of  to-day  so  carefully 
intone  and  recite  precisely  as  they  have  been  handed 
down — even  they  did  not  pretend  to  know  or  to  have 
seen  where  or  whence  or  whither  Brahman  is.  So 
that  the  Bralimans  versed  in  the  three  Vedas  have 
forsooth  said  thus  :  "  To  a  state  of  union  with  that 
which  we  know  not  and  have  not  seen,  we  can  show 
the  way  and  can  say :  *  This  is  the  straight  path,  this 
is  the  direct  way  which  leads  him  who  acts  according 
to  it,  into  a  state  of  union  with  Brahman  ^'  " 

*  Now  what  think  you,  Vasettha  1  Does  it  not  follow, 
this  being  so,  that  the  talk  of  the  Brahmans,  versed 
though  they  be  in  the  three  Vedas,  is  foolish  talk  1 

'  Verily,  Vasettha,  that  Brahmans  versed  in  the 
three  Vedas  should  be  able  to  show  the  way  to  a  state 
of  union  with  that  which  they  do  not  know,  neither 
have  seen — such  a  condition  of  things  has  no  existence. 

'  As  when  a  string  of  blind  men  are  clinging  one  to 
the  other,  neither  can  the  foremost  see,  nor  can  the 
middle  one  see,  nor  can  the  hindmost  see,  just  so  is  the 
talk  of  the  Brahmans  versed  in  the  three  Vedas  \' 

These  no  doubt  were  trenchant  words,  but  it  might 
easily  be  shown  that  the  Brahmans  themselves  did  not 

»  Sec  Tevijja-Sutta,  S.  B.  E.  §§  14,  15. 


THREE   WAYS    OF    SALVATION    IN   BRAHMANISM.       95 

scruple  to  use  almost  as  strong  language  against  their 
own  revelation.  For  instance,  the  Chandogya  Upani- 
shad  (p.  473)  speaks  of  the  Veda  as  '  mere  name'  (nama 
eva).  The  Brihadaranyaka  Upanishad  declares  that 
when  a  man  is  in  a  condition  of  knowledge,  '  the  gods 
are  no  gods  to  him,  and  the  Veda  no  Veda  ;'  and  the 
Mundaka  describes  the  sacrificial  Veda  as  ijiferior  to 
Brahma-vidya. 

And  in  truth  every  Hindu  was  allowed  to  choose  one 
of  three  ways  of  securing  his  own  salvation. 

The  first  was  'the  way  of  works'  (Karma-marga), 
that  is  to  say,  of  sacrifices  (Yajna),  of  ceremonial  rites,  of 
lustral  washings,  penances  and  pilgrimages,  as  enjoined 
in  the  Mantra  and  Brahmana  portion  of  the  Veda,  in 
Manu,  the  Law-books  and  parts  of  the  Puranas. 

The  second  was  *  the  way  of  faith  '  (bhakti),  meaning 
by  that  term  devotion  to  one  or  other  of  certain  com- 
monly worshipped  personal  deities, — a  way  leading  in 
later  times  to  the  worship  of  Siva  and  Vishnu  (un- 
folded in  the  Puranas),  and  involving  merely  heart- 
devotion,  without  sacrificial  or  ceremonial  acts. 

The  third  was  '  the  way  of  knowledge'  (Jnana),  as  set 
forth  in  the  Upanishads. 

The  mediaeval  Brahman  Kumarila — a  really  historical 
teacher — advocated  the  first  way ;  another  teacher  of 
less  note,  Sandilya,  advocated  the  second  ;  another  cele- 
brated historical  teacher,  Sankara,  advocated  the  third. 

Even  in  Gautama's  time  any  one  of  these  ways  or  all 
three  together  might  be  chosen,  so  long  as  the  authority 
of  the  Brahmans  was  not  impugned. 

This,  at  least,  is  the  general  teaching  of  the  Bhagavad- 


96      THE   PHILOSOPHICAL   DOCTRINES    OF   BUDDHISM, 

gita — an  eclectic  work  which  is  the  most  popular  ex- 
ponent of  the  Hindu  creed  \ 

Yet  even  the  Author  of  the  Bhagavad-glta  had  a 
preference  for  the  way  of  knowledge.  In  one  passage 
(IT.  42)  he  describes  the  Veda  as  '  mere  flowery  doc- 
trine' (pnshpita  vac),  and  is  careful  to  point  out  that 
works  must  be  performed  as  acts  of  devotion  leading  to 
absorption  into  the  Supreme  (Brahma-nirvanam). 

Indeed  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  generally 
held  by  the  Brahmans  of  Buddha's  time  that  the  way 
of  knowledge  was  the  highest  way.  But  this  way  was 
not  open  to  all.  It  was  reserved  for  the  privileged 
few — for  the  more  intellectual  and  philosophically- 
minded  Brahmans.  The  generality  of  men  had  to 
content  themselves  with  the  first  and  second  ways. 
;  What  the  Buddha  then  did  was  this: — First  he 
stretched  out  the  right  hand  of  brotherhood  to  all 
mankind  by  inviting  all  without  exception  to  join  his 
fraternity  of  celibate  monks,  which  he  wished  to  be 
co-extensive  with  the  world  itself.  Then  he  abolished 
the  first  and  second  ways  of  salvation  (p.  95),  that  is, 
Yajiia,  '  sacrifices,'  and  Bhakti,  '  devotion  to  personal 
gods,'  and  substituted  for  these  meditation  and  moral 
conduct  as  the  only  road  to  true  knowledo^e  and  emanci- 
>'  pation.    And  then,  lastly,  he  threw  open  this  highest  way 

^  The  venerable  SvamI  Sri  Saccidananda  SarasvatT,  in  sending  me 
a  copy  of  the  Bhagavad-glta  with  a  metrical  commentary,  says,  '  It  is 
the  best  of  all  books  on  the  Hindu  religion,  and  contains  the  essence 
of  all  kinds  of  religions  philosoiihy.'  I  find  in  the  Madras  Times  for 
October  29,  1886,  the  following  :  '  At  a  meeting  of  the  "  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  True  Religion,"  at  6  j)-m.  to-day,  tlie  Bhagavad- 
glta  will  be  read  and  explained.' 


THE  Buddha's  one  way  of  salvation.         97 

of  true  knowledge  to  all  who  wished  to  enter  it,  of 
whatever  rank  or  caste  or  mental  calibre  they  might 
be,  not  excepting  the  most  degraded. 

Without  doubt  the  distinguishing  feature  in  the 
Buddha's  gospel  was  that  no  living  being,  not  even  the 
lowest,  was  to  be  shut  out  from  true  enlightenment. 

And  here  it  will  be  necessary  to  inquire  more  closely 
into  the  nature  of  that  knowledge  which  the  Buddha 
thus  made  accessible  to  every  creature  in  the  universe. 

Was  it  some  deep  mystery  ?  Some  occult  doctrine 
of  physical  or  metaphysical  science  1  Some  startling 
revelation  of  a  law  of  nature  never  before  imparted  to 
the  world  1  Was  the  Buddha's  open  way  very  different 
from  the  old,  well-fenced-off  Brahmanical  way  ? 

Of  one  point  we  may  be  certain.  He  was  too 
sensible  to  cast  aside  all  ancient  traditions.  Nor  was 
he  a  mere  enthusiast  claiming  to  be  the  sole  possessor 
of  a  new  secret  for  regenerating  society. 

Unhappily,  however,  we  are  here  met  by  a  difficulty. 
The  Buddha  never,  like  Muhammad,  wrote  a  book,  or, 
so  far  as  we  know,  a  line.  He  was  the  Socrates  of 
India,  and  we  are  obliged  to  trust  to  the  record  of  his 
sayings  (see  p.  38).  Still  we  have  no  reason  to  doubt 
the  genuineness  of  what  was  for  some  time  handed 
down  orally  in  regard  to  the  doctrines  he  taught,  and 
we  are  struck  with  the  fact  that  Gautama  called 
his  own  knowledge  Bodhi  (from  hudh,  'to  understand'), 
and  not  Veda  (from  vid,  '  to  know ').  Probably  by 
doing  so  he  wished  to  imply  that  his  own  knowledge 
was  attainable  by  all  through  their  own  intuitions,  inner 
consciousness,  and  self-enlightening  intellect,  and  was 

H 


98       THE    PHILOSOPHICAL   DOCTRINES    OF    BUDDHISM. 

to  be  distingiusheJ  from  Veda  or  knowledge  obtainable 
through  the  Brahnians  alone,  and  by  them  through 
supernatural  revelation  only.  Hence,  too,  he  gave  to 
every  being  de.^tined  to  become  a  Buddha  the  title 
Bodhi-sattva  (Bodhi-satta),  'one  having  knowledge 
derived  from  self-enlightening  intellect  for  his  essence.' 

But  it  should  be  noted,  that  even  in  the  choice  of 
a  name  derived  from  the  Sanskrit  root  hudli,  the  Buddha 
only  adopted  the  phraseology  of  the  Sahkhya  philo- 
sophy and  of  the  Brahmanas.  The  Sankhya  system 
made  Buddhi,  '  intellect,'  its  great  principle  (Mahat),  and 
the  Satapatha-bralimana  called  a  man  who  had  attained 
to  perfect  knowledge  of  Self  prati-buddha  \  It  may 
be  pointed  out,  too,  that  Manu  (IV.  204)  uses  the  same 
root  when  he  calls  his  wise  man  Budha. 

Moreover,  the  doctrines  which  grew  out  of  his  own 
special  knowledge  Gautama  still  called  Dliarma  (Dham- 
ma),  '  law,'  using  the  very  same  term  employed  by  the 
Brahmans — a  term  expressive  of  law  in  its  most  com- 
prehensive sense,  as  comprising  under  it  the  physical 
laws  of  the  Universe,  as  well  as  moral  and  social  duties. 

In  what,  then,  did  the  Buddha's  Dharma  differ  from 
that  of  the  Brahmans  'i  One  great  distinction  certainly 
was  that  it  contained  no  esoteric  (rahasya)  and  meta- 
physical doctrines  in  regard  to  matter  and  spirit, 
reserved  for  the  privileged  few  ;  yet  some  of  its  root- 
ideas  were  after  all  mere  modifications  of  the  Sankhya, 
Yoga,  and  Vedanta  systems  of  philosophy.  His  way  of 
knowledge,  though  it  developed  into  many  paths,  had 

^  XIV.  7,  2.  17.    This  was  first  pointed  out  by  Professor  A.  Weber. 


ALL    LIFE    IS   MISERY.  jqj 

the  same  point  of  departure.     It  was  a  knowledge  -al 
the  truth,  tliat  all  life  was  merely  one  link  in  a  series 
of  successive  existences,  and  inseparably  bound  up  witli 
misery.     Moreover  as   there  were  two  causes  of  that 
misery — lust  and  ignorance — so  there  were  two  cures. 

The  first  cure  was  the  siifiwession  of  lust  and  desire, 
especially  of  all  desire  for  continuity  of  existence. 

Tlie  second  cure  was  the  removal  of  ignorance. 
Indeed  Ignorance  was,  according  to  Gautama,  the  first 
factor  in  the  misery  of  life,  and  stands  first  in  his  chain 
of  causation  (p.  102).  Not,  however,  the  Vedantist's 
ignorance — not  ignorance  of  the  fact  that  man  and  the 
universe  are  identical  with  God,  but  ignorance  of  the 
four  truths  of  Buddhism  (p.  43) : — ignorance  that  all  life 
is  misery,  and  that  the  misery  of  life  is  caused  by  in- 
dulging lusts,  and  will  cease  by  suppressing  them. 

It  would  be  easy  to  show  how  all  Indian  philosophy 
was  a  mere  scheme  for  getting  rid  of  the  bugbear  of 
metempsychosis,  and  how  common  was  the  doctrine 
that  everything  is  for  the  worst  in  the  worst  of  all 
possible  worlds.  This  was  taught  by  the  Brahmans  five 
centuries  B.C.,  and  continued  to  be  a  thoroughly  Hindu 
idea  long  after  the  disappearance  of  Buddhism.  Wit- 
ness the  following  from  the  Maitrayani  Upanishad  : — 

In  this  weak  body,  ever  liable 

To  wrath,  ambition,  avarice,  illusion, 

To  fear,  grief,  envy,  hatred,  separation 

From  those  we  hold  most  dear,  association 

With  those  we  hate ;    continually  exposed 

To  hunger,  thirst,  disease,  decrepitude, 

Emaciation,  growth,  decline  and  death. 

What  relish  can  there  be  for  true  enjoyment  1 

H  2 


9  8        THE    PHILOSOPHICAL   DOCTRINES    OF   BUDDHISM. 

t*"  Also  the  following,  from  Manii  (VI.  "]"])  : — 

This  body,  like  a  house  composed  of  the  (five)  elements,  with  bones 
for  its  rafters,  tendons  for  its  connecting  links,  flesh  and  blood  for  its 
mortar,  skin  for  its  covering ;  this  house  filled  with  impurities,  in- 
fested by  sorrow  and  old  age,  the  seat  of  disease,  full  of  pain  and 
passion,  and  not  lasting — a  man  ought  certainly  to  abandon. 

Also  Bhartri-hari  (Vairagya-sataka  III.  32.  50) : — 

Enjoyments  are  alloyed  by  fear  of  sickness. 
High  rank  may  have  a  fall,  abundant  wealth 
Is  subject  to  exactions,  dignity 
Encounters  risk  of  insult,  strength  is  ever 
In  danger  of  enfeeblement  by  foes, 
A  handsome  form  is  jeopai-ded  by  women, 
Scriptui'e  is  open  to  assaults  of  critics, 
Merit  incurs  the  spite  of  wicked  men. 
The  body  lives  in  constant  dread  of  death — 
One  course  alone  is  proof  against  alarm, 
Renounce  the  world,  and  safety  may  be  won. 

One  hundred  years  ^  is  the  appointed  span 
Of  human  life,  one  half  of  this  goes  by 
In  sleep  and  night ;    one  half  the  other  half 
In  childhood  and  old  age ;   the  rest  is  passed 
In  sickness,  separation,  pain,  and  service — 
How  can  a  human  being  find  delight 
In  such  a  life,  vain  as  a  watery  bubble  1 

No  doubt  this  kind  of  pessimism  has  always  found 
advocates  in  all  ages,  and  among  all  nations  in  Europe 
as  well  as  in  Asia.  It  was  a  favourite  idea  with  the 
Stoics,  and  it  has  found  favour  with  Schopenhauer, 
Yon  Hartmann,  and  other  modern  philosophers;  and 
Shakespeare  makes  Hamlet  give  expression  to  it. 

*  Centenarians  (Satayus,  Sata-varsha)  seem  to  have  been  rather 
common  in  India  in  ancient  times,  if  we  may  judge  by  the  allusions 
to  them  in  Manu  and  other  works.     See  Manu  III.  186 ;  II.  135,  137. 


PESSIMIST   PHILOSOPHY   OF    INDIA.  lOI 

Happily  the  general  tone  of  European  philosophical 
thought  is  in  another  key,  and  the  admirers  of  Aristotle 
still  constitute  a  majority  in  Europe.  The  great 
Stagirite  described  God  as  '  Energy,'  and  in  dealing 
with  Solon's  dictum  that  '  no  man  can  be  called  happy 
while  he  lives,'  gave  expression  to  a  different  belief. 
A  good  man's  virtuous  energies,  he  asserted,  are  in 
this  present  life  a  genuine  source  of  happiness  to  him; 
misfortunes  cannot  shake  his  well-balanced  character ; 
he  surmounts  the  worst  sufferings  by  generous  mag- 
nanimity ^. 

Even  in  the  East  a  greater  than  Aristotle  and  no  less 
an  Authority  than  the  true  '  Light  of  the  world' — bade 
men  rejoice  and  leap  for  joy  under  the  most  trying  cir- 
cumstances of  life,  and  prize  His  gift  of  Eternal  Life  as 
their  highest  good. 

In  India,  on  the  contrary,  the  Upanishads  and  systems 
of  philosophy  which  followed  on  them,  all  harped  on  the 
same  string.  They  all  dwelt  on  the  same  minor  key- 
note. Their  real  object  was  not  to  investigate  truth, 
but  to  devise  a  scheme  for  removing  the  misery  believed 
to  result  from  repeated  bodily  existence  and  from  all 
action,  good  or  bad,  in  the  present,  previous,  and  future 
births. 

The  Sankhya  (I.  i )  defines  the  chief  aim  of  man  to 
be  deliverance  from  the  pain  incident  to  bodily  life  and 
energy;  or  according  to  the  Nyaya  (I.  2),  from  the  paui 
resulting   from  birth,    actions,  and   false   knowledge ; 


*  I  here  merely  give  the   substance  of  what  may  be  found  fully 
stated  in  Ai-istotle's  Ethics,  I.  i  and  IV.  3. 


I02       THE    PHILOSOPHICAL    DOCTRINES    OF    BLDDHISM. 

while  the  Vedanta  considers  that  ignorance  alone  fetters 
the  soul  of  man  to  a  body,  and  the  Yoga  defines  the 
divine  Purusha  (  =  the  perfect  man  of  Buddhism)  as  a 
being  unaffected  by  pain  (klesa),  acts,  consequences  of 
acts,  and  impressions  derived  from  acts  done  in  previous 
births  (asaya  =  sanskara). 

Gautama's  sympathy  with  these  ideas  is  shown  by 
the  twelve-linked  chain  of  causation,  put  forth  by  him 
as  an  accompaniment  to  his  four  fundamental  truths 
(p.  43),  and  thus  expressed  (Maha-vagga  I.  i.  2) : — 

From  Ignorance  comes  the  combination  of  formations 
or  tendencies  (instincts  derived  from  former  births  ^)  ; 
from  such  formations  comes  consciousness  (vijiiana) ; 
from  consciousness,  individual  being  {nama-rupa,  name 
and  form) ;  from  individual  being,  the  six  organs  of 
sense  (including  mind) ;  from  the  six  organs,  contact 
(with  objects  of  sense) ;  from  contact,  sensation  (vedana) ; 
from  sensation,  desire  (lust,  thirst,  tanha  =  trislma) ; 
from  desire,  clinging  to  life  (upadana) ;  from  clinging 
to  life,  continuity  of  becoming  (bhava) ;  from  continuity 
of  becoming,  birth  ;  from  birth,  decay  and  death ;  from 
decay  and  death,  suffering. 

It  is  difficult  to  discover  a  strictly  logical  sequence 
ill  this  curious  twelve-linked  chain.     The  first  link  is  a 


^  That  is,  Sanikhara=  Sanskrit  Sanskarah  pk  (see  p.  109),  'quali- 
ties forming  charactpr.'  In  the  Vaiseshika  system  Sanskfira  is  one 
of  the  twenty-four  qualities,  the  self-reproductive  quality.  In  the 
Yof^a  system  Sanskrira  =  Asaya,  'impressions  derived  from  actions  done 
in  previous  births,'  According  to  Childers,  Samkaro  is  practically^ 
Karma,  '  act.'  It  may  also  stand  for  '  matter,'  and  for  a  quality,  or 
mode  of  being ;  e.g.  not  only  for  a  plant  but  for  its  greenness. 


TWELVE-LINKED    CHAIN    OF    CAUSATIOX.  103 

cause,  the  ten  following  are  both  causes  and  effects,  while 
the  last  is  an  effect  only.  The  second  (sarnkhara)  is  pre- 
sented to  us  afterwards  as  one  of  the  Skandhas  (p.  109), 
and  we  have  the  whole  inverted  in  a  kind  of  ciicular 
chain  in  the  form  of  question  and  answer,  thus : — 

What  is  the  cause  of  misery  and  suffering  1  Ansiver 
— Old  age  and  death.  What  is  the  cause  of  old  age 
and  death  ?  Answer — Birth.  Of  birth  ?  Ansiver — Con- 
tinuity of  becoming.  Of  continuity  of  becoming  I 
Answer — Clinging  to  life.  Of  clinging  to  life  ?  Answer 
—  Desire.  Of  desire"?  Answer — Sensation  or  perception. 
Of  sensation'?  Answer — Contact  with  the  objects  of 
sense.  Of  contact  with  objects  "?  Answer — The  organs 
of  sense.  Of  the  organs  \  Ansiver — Name  and  form, 
or  individual  being.  Of  individual  being  ?  Ansiver — 
Consciousness  (vinnana  =  vijnana).  Of  consciousness  ? 
Answer — Combination  of  formations  or  tendencies  (or 
those  material  and  mental  predispositions  derived  from 
previous  births  which  tend  to  form  character,  compare 
p.  109).     Of  such  formations  ?    ^7zs?fer— Ignorance. 

In  making  Ignorance  (Avidya)  the  first  cause  of  the 
misery  of  life,  Gautama  agreed  with  the  Vedanta 
(though  he  explained  Ignorance  differently,  see  p.  99), 
while  in  the  remaining  chain  of  causes  (Nidana)  we 
detect  his  sympathy  with  the  Saiikhya  theory  of  a 
chain  of  producers  and  products. 

His  own  scheme  of  causation  (often  called  Paticca- 
samuppado)  occupies  an  important  place  in  Buddhistic 
philosophy,  as  supplementary  to,  and  complementary  of, 
the  four  truths  (p.  43).  It  was  thought  out  before  them 
(see  p.  39)  and  is  equally  revered. 


104    THE    PHILOSOPHICAL   DOCTRINES    OF    BUDDHISM. 

It  is  on  tliis  account  that  the  following  celebrated 
formula  is  constantly  repeated  like  a  short  creed,  and  is 
found  carved  on  numerous  Buddhist  monuments : — - 

*  Conditions  (or  laws)  of  existence  which  proceed  from 
a  cause,  the  cause  of  these  hath  the  Buddha  explained, 
as  also  the  cessation  (or  destruction)  of  these.  Of  such 
truths  is  the  Great  Sramana  the  teacher  ^ ' 

This  was  the  formula  repeated  by  Assaji  to  Sariputta 
and  Moggallana  (p.  47),  when  they  wished  to  join  the 
Buddha  and  asked  for  a  summary  of  the  spirit  (artha), 
not  the  letter  (vyanjana),  of  his  doctrine  (Maha-v°  I.  23. 
5).  Certainly  the  sorites-like  form  of  statement  in  the 
scheme  of  causation  had  charms  for  Oriental  thinkers. 

Moreover  the  Buddha's  method  of  clothing  old  truths 
in  a  new  dress,  or — to  adopt  another  metaphor — his 
plan  of  putting  new  wine  into  old  bottles,  had  in  it 
something  very  attractive  to  all  Indian  minds. 

Of  what  kind,  then,  was  the  new  dress  in  which 
Gautama  clothed  the  great  central  doctrine  of  Indian 
philosophy — the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  involving 
the  perpetuation  of  the  misery  of  life  1 

The  Buddha,  like  all  Indians,  was  by  nature  a  meta- 

^  The  Pali  in  Maha-v°  I.  23.  5,  is: — Ye  clhamma  lietuppabhava 
tesam  hetum  Tatbagato  aha  tesam  ca  yo  nirodho  evamvadi  ]Maha- 
samano.  The  form  Tathagato  is  also  common  in  Sanskrit  versions. 
The  metrical  form  of  the  sentence  has  become  broken. 

Professor  Cowell  informs  me  that  the  Sanskrit  given  in  an  old 
MS.  at  Cambridge  is  : — '  Ye  dharma  hetu-]jrabhava  hetum  teshani 
Tathagatah  ]  Hy  avadat  tesham  ca  yo  nirodha  evam-vadl  Maha- 
Sramanah.'  Burnouf  gives  a  slightly  different  version,  thus : — Ye 
dharma  hetu-prabhavas  tesham  hetum  Tathagata  uvaca  tesham  ca  etc. 
Sometimes  both  avadat  and  tivdca  are  omitted. 


ATTITUDE    TOWARDS    SANKHYA    AND    VEDANTA.    107 

physician.  He  had  great  sympathy  with  the  philosophy 
of  the  Upanishads.  How  was  it  that  he  disbeheved 
in  the  existence  of  Spirit  as  distinct  from  bodily  organ- 
ism ?  A  little  consideration  will  perhaps  make  clear 
how  he  was  brought  to  his  own  peculiar  agnostic  view. 

Probably  before  his  so-called  enhghtenment  and 
attainment  of  true  knowledge,  he  was  as  firm  a  be- 
liever in  the  real  existence  of  one  Universal  Spirit  as 
the  most  orthodox  Brahman.  He  had  become  imbued 
with  Brahmanical  philosophy  while  sitting  at  the  feet  of 
his  two  teachers  Alara  and  Uddaka  (p.  29).  At  that 
time  there  were  no  definite  or  formulated  philosophical 
systems,  separated  from  each  other  by  sharp  lines. 
But  the  Sankhya,  Yoga,  and  Vedanta  systems  were  as- 
suming shape,  and  the  doctrines  they  embodied  had 
been  foreshadowed  in  the  Upanishads,  and  were  orally 
current. 

In  short,  it  had  been  repeatedly  stated  in  the  Upani- 
shads, that  nothing  really  existed  but  the  one  universally 
present  impersonal  Spirit,  and  that  the  whole  visible 
world  was  really  to  be  identified  with  that  Spirit. 

Then  it  followed  as  an  article  of  faith  that  man's 
spirit,  deluded  into  a  temporary  false  idea  of  separate 
independent  personal  existence  by  the  illusion  of  igno- 
rance, was  also  identical  with  that  One  Spirit,  and 
ultimately  to  be  re-absorbed  into  it. 

Further,  it  followed  that  man's  spirit,  while  so 
deluded  and  so  separated  for  a  time  from  the  One 
Spirit,  was  compelled  to  migrate  through  innumerable 
bodily  forms,  and  that  such  migration  entailed  misery, 
from  which  there  was  no  escape  except  by  a  process  of 


^.^6      THE    PHILOSOPHICAL    DOCIRIXES    OF    BUDDHISM. 

disillusionment,  that  is,  by  dissipating  the  illusion  of 
separate  individuality,  through  the  acquisition  of  per- 
fect knowledge  leading  to  re-union  with  the  One  Spirit,  as 
the  river  blends  with  the  ocean.  And  such  knowledge 
was  best  gained  by  suppression  of  the  passions,  aban- 
donment of  all  worldly  connexions,  and  abstinence  from 
all  action.  Finally,  it  was  held,  with  apparent  incon- 
sistency, that  the  storing  up  of  merit  by  good  works 
assisted  in  effecting  this  object  by  raising  a  man,  not 
yet  fit  for  union  with  the  supreme  Spirit,  to  forms  of 
existence  in  which  such  union  might  be  accomplished. 

Now  it  is  obvious  that  to  believe  in  the  ultimate 
merging  of  man's  personal  spirit  in  One  impersonal 
Spirit,  is  virtually  to  deny  the  ultimate  existence  of 
any  human  spirit  at  all.  Nay  more — it  is  virtually  to 
deny  the  existence  of  a  supreme  universal  Spirit  also. 

For  how  can  a  merely  abstract  universal  Spirit,  which 
is  unconscious  of  personality,  be  regarded  as  possessing 
any  real  existence  worth  being  called  true  life  ? 

To  assert  that  such  a  Spirit  is  pure  abstract  Entity 
or  (according  to  Vedanta  phraseology)  pure  Existence 
(without  anything  to  exist  for),  pure  Thought  or  even 
pure  Consciousness  (without  anything  to  think  about, 
or  be  conscious  about),  pure  Joy  (without  anything 
to  rejoice  about),  is  practically  to  reduce  it  to  pure 
non-entity. 

All  that  Gautama  did,  therefore,  -^as  to  purge 
Brahmanism  of  a  dogma  which  appeared  to  him  to  be 
a  mere  sham  (Brahma-jala  I.  26). 

He  simply  eliminated  as  incapable  of  proof  the 
doctrine  of  a  purely  abstract,  incorporeal  spirit  or  self, 


THE    BUDDHA  S    NEGATIONS.  1 07 

whether  human  or  divine.  The  assertion  that  any  soul 
or  self  or  Ego  really  existed  (Atta-vado)  was  an  error. 
It  formed  one  of  the  constituents  of  Upadana  (p.  109), 
and  was  tlie  first  of  the  ten  fetters  (Sakkaya-ditthi, 
p.  127). 

And  with  the  rejection  of  this  dogma,  as  incapable 
of  demonstration,  he  found  himself  compelled  to  reject 
also,  as  beyond  the  range  of  man's  cognizance,  the 
doctrine  of  any  Supreme  Being  higher  than  the  per- 
fectly enlightened  man.  Like  Kapila  in  the  Sahkhya 
aphorisms  (1.  92,  V.  10)  he  felt  bound  to  admit:  'It 
is  not  proved  that  there  is  a  God.' 

This,  indeed,  is  the  chief  foundation  on  which  rests 
the  assertion  that  Buddhism  is  a  mere  system  of 
atheistic  negations.  And  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
from  one  point  of  view  its  statements  are  steeped  in 
negations,  or  rather  perhaps  in  evasions.  Its  morality 
has  been  described  as  more  negative  than  positive ; 
but  this  is  scarcely  correct,  and  it  would  be  fairer 
to  say  that  it  delights  in  telling  men  to  abstain 
from  doing  evil,  rather  than  in  urging  them  to  active 
exertions  for  the  good  of  others.  It  has  many  positive 
precepts. 

But  if  there  was  no  probability  of  a  soul  existing 
separately  from  a  body  after  death,  how  could  there  be 
any  soul-transmigration  1  How  could  there  be  any 
agreement  between  the  teaching  of  the  Buddha  and 
that  of  the  Brahmans,  in  regard  to  this  important 
central  dogma?  The  real  fact  was  that  the  diverg- 
ence of  the  Buddhist  doctrine  from  the  Brahmanical, 
as   stated  m  the   Upanishads,  was   not   greater   than 


/ 


108     THE    PHILOSOPHICAL   DOCTRINES    OF    BUDDHISM. 

was  to  be  expected  from  the  difference  of  belief  between 
the  two  systems  in  regard  to  the  existence  of  soul. 

Plato,  we  know,  held  that  souls  '  found  their  prisons 
in  the  same  natures'  at  death,  so  that  an  effeminate 
man  might  be  re-born  as  a  woman,  a  tyrannical  man 
as  a  wolf,  and  so  on.  In  Manu's  Law-book  is  set  forth 
a  triple  order  of  soul-transmigration  through  lower, 
middle,  and  higher  planes  of  existence,  resulting  from 
good,  middling,  and  bad  acts,  words,  and  thoughts. 
Thus — to  instance  only  the  lower — the  soul  of  a  man 
who  spoke  ill  of  his  teacher  was  destined  to  pass  into 
an  ass  or  a  dog  (II.  201),  the  soul  of  a  thief  might 
occupy  a  mouse  (XII.  62),  the  soul  of  one  who  neglected 
his  caste-duties  might  pass  into  a  demon  (XII.  71,  72) ; 
and  greater  crimes  might  lead  to  the  soul's  being  con- 
demned to  occupy  plants,  stones,  and  minerals.  Then 
there  was  also  an  intermediate  condition  of  the  soul. 
According  to  one  idea  it  went  to  the  moon ;  according 
to  another  it  became  a  hungry  ghost  which  required 
food  to  be  offered  to  it  at  the  Sraddha  ceremonies. 

This  theory  of  transmigration,  according  to  the  Hindus, 
explained  the  origin  of  evil.  Evil  must  proceed  from 
antecedent  evil,  and  the  resulting  penalty  must  be 
borne  by  the  evil-doer  in  succeeding  existences.  This 
was  the  terrible  incubus  which  it  was  the  great 
object  of  Indian  philosophers  to  remove.  It  was 
equally  Gautama's  object,  but  how  could  he  accept 
soul-transmigration,  denying  as  he  did  the  existence 
of  any  spirit,  as  distinct  from  material  organization  ? 
He  therefore  put  forth  a  view  of  his  own,  thus : — 
Every  being  is  composed  of  five  constituent  elements 


THE  BUDDHIST  SKANDHAS  AND  TE ANSMIGEATION.     \  I  I 

called  Skandhas  (Pali  Khandba),  which  have  theii 
source  in  Upadana  (p.  103)  and  are  continually  combin- 
ing, dissolving,  and  recombining,  viz.  i.  Form  {rfqm), 
i.  e.  the  organized  body.  2.  Sensation  {yedand)  of  pain 
or  pleasure,  or  of  neither,  arising  from  contact  of  eye, 
ear,  nose,  tongue,  skin,  and  mind  with  external  objects. 
3.  Perception  {sauna  =  sanjnd)  of  ideas  through  the 
same  sixfold  contact.  4.  Aggregate  of  formations 
(samJihdra  =  sanskdra,  i.  e.  combination  of  properties  or 
faculties  or  mental  tendencies,  fifty-two  in  number, 
forming  individual  character  and  derived  from  previous 
existences ;  compare  the  similar  sanikhara  pi.  at  p.  102). 
( 5.  Consciousness  {yimidna  =  viJTidna)  or  thoughts  This 
fifth  is  the  most  important.  It  is  the  only  soul  re- 
cognized by  Buddhists.  Theoretically  it  perishes  with 
the  other  Skandhas,  but  practically  is  continued,  since 
its  exact  counterpart  is  reproduced  in  a  new  body. 

For  although,  when  a  man  dies,  all  the  five  consti- 
tuents of  existence  are  dissolved,  yet  by  the  force  re- 
sulting from  his  actions  {karma),  combined  with  Uim- 
ddna,  *  clinging  to  existence '  (one  form  of  the  fetters  at 
p.  127),  a  new  set  of  five,  of  which  consciousness  is 
still  the  dominant  faculty,  starts  into  being.  The 
process  of  the  new  creation  is  so  instantaneous  that 
it  is  equivalent  to  the  continuance  of  the  same  per- 
sonality, pervaded  by  the  same  consciousness ;  though 
each  personality  is  only  really  connected  with  the 
previous    by  the   force    of    acts   done    and    character 


^  Sometimes  a  human    being  is   said  to  be  made  up  of  the  five 
elements — ether,  air,  fire,  water,  earth — with  a  sixth  called  Vijnana. 


jqO   the  philosophical  doctrines  of  buddhism. 

/  formed  in  each — such  force  operating  through  Upadana. 
Ill  short,  to  speak  of  transmigration  of  souls  in  Buddhism 
gives  a  wrong  idea.  Metempsychosis  with  Buddliists 
resolves  itself  into  continuous  metamorphosis  or  Palin- 
^  genesis.  For  no  true  Buddhist  believes  in  the  passing 
of  a  soul  from  one  body  to  another,  but  rather  in  the 
passing  on  of  what  may  be  called  act-force,  or  of  the 
merit  and  demerit  resulting  from  a  man's  acts,  so  as 
to  cause  a  continuous  succession  of  transformations — 
a  succession  which  may  be  compared  to  the  rolling  on  of 
a  wheel  through  difterent  scenes  and  over  every  variety 
of  ground ;  or  to  the  burning  on,  through  day  and 
night,  of  a  llame  which  is  not  the  same  flame  at  the 
beginning  of  the  day  and  end  of  the  night,  and  yet 
is  not  different.  It  is  this  act-force  (Karma),  combined 
with  Upadana,  'clinging  to  existence'  ( =  abhi-nivesa  in 
the  Yoga  II.  9),  which  is  the  connecting  link  between 
each  man's  past,  present,  and  future  bodies. 

In  its  subtle  and  irresistible  operation  it  may  be 
compared  to  stored-up  chemical  or  electric  energy.  It 
is  a  force  which  continually  creates  and  re-creates 
the  whole  man.  and  perpetuates  his  personal  identity 
through  separate  forms,  whether  it  compels  him  to 
ascend  or  descend  in  the  scale  of  beinfr. 

Yet  to  say  that  personahty  is  transmitted,  when 
there  is  no  consciousness  of  any  continuity  of  identity, 
amounts,  after  all,  to  denial  of  continuous  existence. 

Be  it  observed,  too,  that  the  scale  of  existence  is 
limited  in  Buddhism  to  six  classes  of  beings — gods, 
men,  demons,  animals,  ghosts,  and  dwellers  in  hell 
(p.   121).     Transmigration   is  not  extended,  as  in  the 


THx^i:    BUDDHA  S    REPEATED    BIRTHS.  Ill 

Bialimanical  system,  to  plants,  stocks,  and  stones ; 
though  a  man  could  be  born  as  a  tree-god  (p.  1 1 2). 

Gautama  Buddha  himself  was  merely  the  last  link  in  a 
long  chain  of  cor[)oreal  forms,  and  he  had  been  preceded 
by  twenty-four  Buddhas,  who  were  to  previous  ages  of 
the  world  what  he  was  to  the  present.  Every  one  of 
these  Buddhas  was  gifted  with  the  faculty  of  recollect- 
ing his  previous  personalities,  and  Gautama  often  gave 
an  account  of  his  own  former  existences.  The  stories  of 
about  five  hundred  and  fifty  of  his  births  (Jatakas)  are 
even  now  daily  repeated  to  eager  listeners  in  every 
Buddhist  country,  and  are  believed  to  convey  important 
lessons,  though  full  of  puerilities. 

The  interchange  of  ideas  between  Brahmanism  and 
Buddhism  is  well  exemplified  not  only  by  the  twenty- 
five  Buddhas,  who  correspond  to  the  fourteen  Manus, 
or  representative  men,  in  each  world-jjeriod  (Antara), 
but  also  by  the  birth-stories,  many  of  which  are  mere 
modifications  of  old  fables  long  current  in  India,  while 
others  liave  been  imported  from  Buddhism  into  San- 
skrit literature.  They  constantly  remind  one  of  similar 
stories  in  the  Panca-tantra,  Hitopadesa,  Bamayana,  and 
Maha-bharata.  The  noteworthy  point  about  the  re- 
peated births  of  Gautama  Buddha  is,  that  there  ap- 
pears to  have  been  no  Darwinian  rise  from  lower 
to  higher  forms  ;  but  a  mere  jumble  of  metamorphoses. 
Thus  we  find  him  born  four  times  as  Maha-brahma, 
twenty  times  as  Indra,  once  as  a  hare,  eighty-three 
times  as  an  ascetic,  fifty-eight  as  a  king,  twenty-four 
as  a  Brahman,  once  as  a  gamester,  eighteen  times  as 
a    monkey,    six    as    an    elephant,    eleven    as    a    deer. 


1  I  2     THE    PHILOSOPHICAL   DOCTRINES   OF   BUDDHISM. 

once  as  a  dog,  four  times  as  a  serpent,  six  as  a 
snipe,  once  as  a  frog,  twice  as  a  fish,  forty-three  times 
as  a  tree-god,  twice  as  a  pig,  ten  times  as  a  lion,  four 
as  a  cock,  twice  as  a  thief,  once  as  a  devil-dancer, 
and  so  on.  He  was  never  born  as  a  woman,  nor  as 
an  insect,  nor  as  a  Preta,  nor  an  inhabitant  of  hell 
(p.  119),  and  in  all  his  births  he  was  a  Bodhi-sattva 
(pp.  98,  135).  And  in  all  he  suffered  and  sacrificed 
himself  for  the  good  of  the  world. 

Here  is  the  substance  of  an  account  of  Gautama's 
birth  as  a  hare,  given  by  himself  (Cariya-Pitaka  I. 
10,  translated  by  Dr.  Oldenberg)  : — 

'  In  one  of  my  lives  I  was  a  hare  living  in  a  forest. 
I  ate  grass  and  did  no  one  any  harm.  An  ape,  a  jackal, 
and  an  otter  dwelt  with  me.  I  used  to  teach  them  their 
duties  and  teU  them  to  abstain  from  evil  and  give  alms 
on  the  four  fast-days  in  every  month.  They  did  as  I 
told  them,  and  gave  beans,  corn,  and  rice.  Then  I  said 
to  myself: — Suppose  a  worthy  object  of  charity  passes 
by,  what  can  I  give  him  ?  I  live  on  grass  only ;  I  can- 
not offer  a  starving  man  grass ;  I  must  give  him  myself. 
Thereupon  the  god  Sakra,  wishing  to  test  my  sincerity, 
came  in  a  Brahman's  form  and  asked  me  for  food. 
When  I  saw  him  I  said  joyfully  : — "  A  noble  gift  will  I 
give  thee,  0  Bnlhman ;  thou  observest  the  precepts ; 
thou  jiainest  no  creature  ;  thou  wilt  not  kill  me  for 
food.  But  go,  collect  wood,  place  it  in  a  heap,  and 
kindle  a  fire.  Then  I  will  roast  myself,  and  thou 
may'st  eat  me." 

'He  said  : — "So  be  it,"  and  went  and  gathered  wood 
and  kindled  a  fire. 


TWO    PEEVIOUS    BIRTHS    OF   THE    BUDDHA.  II3 

'  When  the  wood  began  to  send  forth  flame,  I  leaped 
into  the  midst  of  the  blazing  fire. 

'As  water  quenches  heat,  so  the  flames  quelled  all  the 
sufferings  of  life.  Cuticle  and  skin,  flesh  and  sinews, 
bones,  ligaments,  and  heart — my  whole  body  with  all 
its  limbs — I  gave  to  the  Brahman.' 

Perhaps  the  best  and  most  often  recited  Jataka  is 
the  last  birth  but  one,  in  which  he  was  born  as  prince 
Vessantara  (Vaisyantara).  This  is  called  the  Maha- 
jataka,  '  great  birth.'     It  may  be  summarized  thus  : — 

'Vessantara  (afterwards  Buddha)  was  so  liberal  that  he 
gave  to  every  one  who  asked.  Among  his  possessions 
was  a  white  elephant,  which  had  the  power  of  bringing 
down  rain  whenever  it  was  needed.  At  last  he  gave 
away  this  also  to  a  neighbouring  country  suffering  from 
drought.  This  so  incensed  his  own  people  that  they 
persuaded  the  king  his  father  to  banish  him  with  his 
wife  and  two  children  to  the  forest.  They  set  out  in  a 
chariot  drawn  by  horses.  First  he  gave  away  the 
horses  and  next  the  chariot  to  Brahmans  who  begged 
for  them.  Then  when  another  Brahman  asked  for 
the  children,  Vessantara  gave  them  up  too,  saying : 
"  May  I  for  this  act  become  a  Buddha  1 "  In  short  his 
sufferings  and  theirs  in  banishment,  and  his  generosity 
to  every  one,  led  to  his  recall  with  great  rejoicings. 
When  he  died  he  was  born  again  in  the  Tushita  heaven, 
whence  he  descended  as  a  white  elephant  into  the  womb 
of  Maya,  and  was  born  as  Gautama'  (p.  23). 

Another  wise  man  of  the  East,  who  lived  long  before 
Gautama,  spoke  of '  the  path  of  the  just  shining  more 
and  more  unto  the  perfect  day.'     Of  this  kind  of  pro- 

I 


114      THE    PHILOSOPHICAL   DOCTRIXES    OF    BUDDHISM. 

gressive  advance  towards  higher  planes  of  perfection, 
the  Indian  sage  knew  nothing.  Nor  to  the  Buddha,  of 
course,  would  the  Christian  idea  of  '  original  sin,'  or 
of  imputed  Perfection  have  conveyed  anv  meaning: 
whatever.  With  Gautama,  righteousness  and  unright- 
eousness, holiness  and  sin,  were  the  product  of  a  man's 
own  acts.  They  were  produced  by  no  one  but  himself, 
and  they  were  merely  troublesome  forces  (see  p.  124) 
causing,  in  tlie  one  case,  a  man's  re-birth  either  in  one 
of  the  heavens  or  in  higher  earthly  corporeal  forms, 
and,  in  the  other,  his  re-birth  in  one  of  the  hells  or  in 
lower  corporeal  forms.  '  Not  in  the  heavens,'  says  the 
Dhamma-pada  (127),  'not  in  the  midst  of  the  sea,  not 
if  thou  hidest  thyself  in  the  clefts  of  the  mountains, 
wilt  thou  find  a  place  where  thou  canst  escape  the 
force  resulting  from  thy  evil  actions.' 

Here  also  is  the  substance  of  a  passage  in  the  Deva- 
duta-sutta  (translated  by  Dr.  Oldenberg)  : — 

*  Do  not  relatives  and  friends  welcome  a  man  who 
has  been  long  travelling,  when  he  returns  safely  to  his 
home  1  Even  so,  a  righteous  man,  when  he  passes 
from  this  world  to  another,  is  welcomed  by  his  good 
Avorhs,  as  by  friends. 

'Through  the  six  states  of  transmigration  does  the 
power  of  our  actions  lead  us.  A  life  in  the  heavens 
awaits  the  good.  The  wardens  of  hell  drag  the  wicked 
before  the  king  of  hell,  Yama,  who  says  to  them : — 
"  Did  you  not,  when  on  earth,  see  the  five  divine 
messengers,  sent  to  warn  you — the  child,  the  old  man, 
the  sick,  the  criminal  suffering  punishment,  and  the 
dead  corpse  ? " 


RE-CREATIVE    FORCE    OF   ACTS.  I  I  5 

'And  tlie  wicked  man  answers  : — "I  did  see  them." 

'And  didst  thou  not  think  within  thyself: — "I  also 
am  subject  to  birth,  old  age,  death.  Let  me  be  careful 
to  do  good  works  ? " 

'  And  the  wicked  man  answers  : — "  I  did  not,  sire  ; 
I  neglected  in  my  folly  to  think  of  these  things." 

'Then  king  Yama  pronounces  his  doom : — "These  thy 
evil  deeds  are  not  the  work  of  thy  mother,  father, 
relations,  friends,  advisers.  Thou  alone  hast  done 
them  all ;  thou  alone  must  gather  the  fruit."  And  the 
warders  of  hell  drag  him  to  the  place  of  torment,  rivet 
him  to  red-hot  iron,  plunge  him  in  glowing  seas  of 
blood,  torture  him  on  heaps  of  burning  coal ;  and  he 
dies  not,  till  the  last  residue  of  his  guilt  has  been 
expiated.' 

And  this  Buddhist  theory  of  every  man's .  destiny 
being  dependent  on  his  own  acts  is  quite  in  keeping 
with  Brahmanical  ideas.  '  In  that  (new  body)  he  is 
united  with  the  knowledge  gained  in  the  former  body, 
and  then  again  goes  on  working  for  perfection  ;  for 
even  against  his  will  he  is  forced  on  (from  one  body  to 
another)  by  his  former  works'  (Bhagavad-gita  VI.  43, 
44).  And  again : — '  The  act  committed  in  a  former 
birth  (purva-janma-kritam  karma),  that  is  called  one's 
destiny  ;'  and  again,  'As  from  a  lump  of  clay  a  work- 
man makes  what  he  pleases,  even  so  a  man  obtains 
whatever  destiny  he  has  wrought  out  for  himself 
(Hitopadesa,  Introduction).  In  Bralimanism  the  in- 
fluence of  Karma  or  '  act '  in  determining  every  being's 
form  at  the  time  of  his  own  re-birth  is  universal. 

Thus  also  the  Nyaya  of  Gautama  (III.  132)  afiSrms 

I  2 


I  1 6     THE    PHILOSOPHICAL   DOCTRINES    OF   BUDDHISM. 

that  the  new  body  (after  death)  is  produced  through 
the  irresistible  force  of  actions  done  in  the  previous 
body  (purva-krita-phalanubandhat  tad-utpattih).  The 
cosmogony  of  the  same  philosophy  (Vaiseshika  branch), 
taught  that  the  concurrence  of  eternal  atoms  to  form 
the  world  was  the  result  of  Adrishta  or  the  '  unseen 
force '  derived  from  the  acts  of  a  previous  world. 

We  are  reminded,  too,  of  our  poet's  own  sentiment: 
'Our  deeds  still  travel  with  us  from  afar,  And  what 
we  have  been  makes  us  what  we  are  ;  '  and  of  Don 
Quixote's  saying,  '  Every  man  is  the  son  of  his  own 
works  ;'  and  of  Wordsworth's,  '  The  child  is  father  of 
the  man ; '  and  of  Longfellow's,  '  Lives  of  great  men 
all  remind  us,  we  can  make  ourselves  sublime.' 
/  In  short,  we  are  the  outcome  of  ourselves.  Nor  can 
ceremonies  avail  aught,  nor  can  devotion  to  personal 
gods  avail  auglit,  nor  can  anything  whatever  possess 
the  slightest  efficacy  to  save  a  man  from  his  own  acts. 

It  is  said  that  Buddhism  leaves  the  will  unfettered ; 
but  surely  fatalism  is  taught  when  the  force  of  one's 
own  deeds  in  previous  births  is  held  to  be  irresistible. 

The  only  creator,  then,  recognized  by  true  Buddhists 
is  Act-force.  '  My  action  is  the  womb  that  bears  me,' 
says  the  Anguttara  Nikaya.  It  is  this  Act-force  that 
creates  worlds.  It  is  this  Act-force,  in  conjunction  with 
Upildana  (p.  109),  that  creates  all  beings  in  any  of 
the  six  classes  into  which  they  are  divided — gods,  men, 
demons,  animals,  ghosts,  and  the  dwellers  in  hell.  We 
often  talk  of  the  force  of  a  dead  man's  acts — of  his 
being  dead  and  yet  speaking.  It  is  this  force  which 
in  Buddhism  resists  death ;  for  no  force  can  ever  be  lost. 


ACT-FORCE   CREATING   WORLDS.  I  I  7 

And  what  does  tlie  modern  Positivist  philosopher 
assert  1  He  maintains  that  both  body  and  mind  are 
resolved  into  their  elements  at  death.  The  only  im- 
mortal part  of  us  consists  in  the  good  deeds,  words, 
thoughts,  and  influences  we  leave  behind  us,  to  be  made 
use  of  by  our  descendants  and  improved  on  for  the 
elevation  of  humanity.  And  the  aggregate  of  these, 
combined  with  the  force  of  will,  constitute,  according 
to  the  Buddhist,  a  power  strong  enough  to  re-create 
not  only  human  beings  but  the  whole  material  world. 

It  was  thus  that  the  force  of  Gautama's  own  acts 
had  constantly  re-created  him  through  a  long  chain 
of  successive  personalities,  terminating  in  the  perfect 
Buddha,  who  has  no  further  births  to  undergo. 

Turn  we  now  to  that  division  of  the  Buddhist  system 
which  concerns  itself  with  the  external  universe,  and 
seeks  to  explain  its  constitution,  form,  and  the  various 
divisions  of  which  it  consists. 

And  here  we  must  be  careful  to  note  the  peculiar 
views  of  Buddhism,  notwithstanding  the  large  ad- 
mixture of  Brahmanical  ideas.  , 

For  Buddhism  has  no  cosmogony  hke  the  Sankhya, 
Vedanta,  and  Vaiseshika.  Nor  does  it  explain  the 
creation  of  the  universe,  in  our  sense.  It  only  concerns 
itself  with  cosmology,  and  it  dissents  from  Brahmanical  K 
cosmology  in  declining  to  admit  the  eternity  of  any- 
thing whatever,  except  change  or  revolution  or  a  suc- 
cession of  revolutions.  Buddhism  has  no  Creator,  no 
creation,  no  original  germ  of  all  things,  no  soul  of  the 
world,  no  personal,  no  impersonal,  no  supramundane, 
no  antemundane  principle. 


A 


I  1 8     THE   PHILOSOPHICAL   DOCTRINES    OF   BUDDHISM. 

It  might  indeed  have  Leen  supposed  that  since  Gau- 
tama denied  the  eternal  existence  of  either  a  personal 
God  or  of  Spirit,  he  would  at  least  have  given  eternal 
existence  to  matter. 

But  no  ;  the  only  eternal  things  are  the  Causality  of 
Act-force  and  the  succession  of  cause  and  effect — the 
eternity  of  '  Becoming,'  not  of  '  Being.' 

The  Universe  around  us,  with  all  its  visible  pheno- 
mena, must  be  recognized  as  an  existing  entity,  for 
we  see  before  our  eyes  evidence  of  its  actual  existence. 
But  it  is  an  entity  produced  out  of  nonentity,  and 
destined  to  lapse  again  into  nonentity  when  its  time  is 
fulfilled. 

For  out  of  nothingness  it  came,  and  into  nothingness 
must  it  return — to  re-appear  again,  it  is  true,  but  as 
a  new  Universe  brought  into  being  by  the  accumulated 
force  of  its  predecessor's  acts,  and  not  evolved  out 
of  any  eternally  existing  spiritual  or  material  germ  of 
any  kind. 

It  is  thus  that  Universe  after  Universe  is  like  a  suc- 
cession of  countless  bubbles  for  ever  forming,  expand- 
ing, drifting  onwards,  bursting  and  re-forming,  each 
bubble  owing  its  re-formation  to  the  force  generated 
by  its  vanished  predecessor.  The  poet  Shelley  might 
have  been  called  a  Buddhist  when  he  wrote : 

Worlds  on  worlds  are  rolling  ever 

From  creation  to  decay ; 
Like  the  bubbles  on  a  river, 

Sparkling,  bursting,  borne  away.     (Hellas.) 

Or  like  lotuses,  for  ever  unfolding  and  then  decay- 
ing, each  decay  containing  the  germ  of  a  new  plant ; 


CYCLES  OF  THE  UNIVERSE.  II9 

or  like  an  interminable  succession  of  wheels  for  ever 
coming  into  view,  for  ever  rolling  onwards,  disappear- 
ing and  reappearing ;  for  ever  passing  from  being 
to  non-being,  and  again  from  non-being  to  being.  Tt 
was  this  ceaseless  rotation  that  led  to  the  wheel 
being  adopted  as  the  favourite  symbol  in  Buddhism 
(p.  122). 

Christianity  recognizes  in  a  very  different  way 
this  'law  of  circularity'  in  the  physical  world,  as  the 
Eev.  Hugh  Macmillan  has  ably  pointed  out. 

As  to  the  question  from  whom  1  or  whence  "?  or  how  1 
came  the  original  force  or  impetus  that  started  the  first 
movement,  the  Buddha  hazarded  no  opinion.  He  held 
this  to  be  an  inexplicable  mystery — an  insoluble  riddle. 
He  confessed  himself  to  be  a  thorough  Agnostic.  He 
saw  nothing  but  countless  cycles  of  causes  and  effects, 
and  never  undertook  to  explain  the  first  cause  which 
set  the  first  wheel  in  motion.  It  was  not,  then,  without 
a  deep  significance  that  Gautama  placed  Ignorance  first 
in  his  chain  of  Causation  (p.  102.  Note,  however,  the 
explanation  given  at  p.  99). 

After  all,  these  Buddhistic  speculations  amount  to 
little  else  than  Brahmanism  stripped  of  some  of  its 
transcendental  mysticism.  We  know,  for  example,  that 
the  true  Vedanta  philosophy  makes  the  Universe  pro- 
ceed out  of  an  eternal  Illusion,  or  Ignorance  associated 
with  the  impersonal  Spirit  Brahman,  into  which  it  is 
again  absorbed. 

Can  it  be  affirmed,  then,  a  Buddhist  might  say,  that 
either  this  pure  impersonal  Spirit  (or  Ignorance)  is 
virtually  very  different  from  pure  nothingness  "? 


I20     THE    PHILOSOPHICAL   DOCTEINES    OF   BUDDHISM. 

Wlmt  says  the  author  of  Rig-veda  X.  120? — 

In  the  beginning  tliere  was  neither  nanght  nor  aught, 

Then  there  was  neither  sky  nor  atmosphere  above. 

Then  first  came  darkness  hid  in  darkness,  gloom  in  gloom ; 

Next  all  was  water,  all  a  chaos  indiscreet. 

In  which  the  One  lay  void,  shrouded  in  nothingness. 

Then  as  to  the  vast  periods  called  Kalpas  or  ages, 
during  which  (as  in  Brahman  ism)  constant  Universes 
are  supposed  to  appear,  disappear,  and  re-appear : — 

Let  it  be  supposed,  say  Buddhist  writers,  that  a  solid 
rock  forming  a  vast  cube  sixteen  miles  high,  and  the 
same  in  length  and  breadth,  were  lightly  rubbed  once  in 
a  hundred  years  with  a  piece  of  the  finest  cloth,  and 
by  this  slight  friction  reduced  in  countless  ages  to  the 
size  of  a  mango-seed ;  that  would  still  give  you  no  idea 
of  the  immense  duration  of  a  Buddhist  Kalpa. 

And  what,  in  conclusion,  is  the  existing  UniszBrse  ? 
Buddhist  writers  make  it  consist  of  an  infinite  number 
of  Cakkavalas  (Cakra-valas)  or  vast  circular  planes, 
which  for  convenience  may  be  called  spheres.  Each 
sphere  has  thirty -one  Satta-lokas  (Sattva-lokas)  or 
dwelling-places  of  six  classes  of  living  beings,  rising 
one  above  the  other  and  distributed  under  three  world- 
systems,  built  up  in  successive  tiers  through  infinite 
space,  below,  upon,  and  above  Mount  Meru  (or  Sumeru) 
— the  ideal  central  point  of  the  whole.  This  gigantic 
mythical  mountain  forms  the  mighty  base  or  pivot  of 
the  sphere. 

First  comes  Hell  with  136  divisions,  to  receive  136 
varieties  of  offenders,  all  in  tiers  one  above  the  other,  and 
lying  deep  under  the  earth  in  the  lower  regions  of  the 


LIFE    IN   THE    HELLS.  121 

Uakra-vala.  To  be  re-born  in  Hell  (Naraka)  is  the 
worst  of  all  the  six  kinds  of  existence,  reserved  for  the 
worst  evil-doers,  and  although  the  punishment  is  not 
eternal,  its  shortest  duration  is  for  five  hundred  years 
of  Hell,  each  day  equalling  fifty  years  of  Earth.  Tn 
Brahmanism  there  are  twenty-one  hells  (Manu  IV. 
88-90).  Buddhism  originally  had  only  eight.  The  most 
terrific  (Avici)  is  for  revilers  of  Buddha  and  his  Law. 

Above  the  subdivisions  of  Hell  come  the  other 
sensuous  worlds  (Kama-lokas),  thus  : — (2)  the  world  of 
animals ;  (3)  that  of  Pretas  or  ghosts  ;  (4)  that  of 
Asuras  or  demons ;  (5)  the  earth,  or  world  of  men, 
with  concentric  circles  of  seven  seas. 

Having  distributed  all  possible  places  of  habitation 
for  migrating  beings  under  the  three  heads  of  Hell/' 
four  lower  worlds,  and  twenty-six  heavens  (described  at 
p.  206),  Buddhism  holds  that  there  are  only  six  forms 
or  ways  (gati)  of  existence  through  which  living  beings 
can  pass,  and  under  which  every  thing  that  has  life 
must  be  classed,  and  of  these  the  first  two  ways  are 
good,  the  last  four  bad,  thus: — i.  Gods;  2.  Men; 
3.  Asuras,  or  demons,  inhabiting  spaces  under  the 
earth;  4.  Animals;  5.  Pretas,  or  ghosts,  recently  in- 
habitants of  earth,  and  ever  consumed  with  hunger  and 
thirst ;  6.  Beings  undergoing  torment  in  the  hells. 

As  to  the  gods,  bear  in  mind  that  Buddhism  recog- 
nized most  of  the  deities  of  Hinduism.     See  p.  206. 

Such  gods  existed  in  subtle  corporeal  forms,  and, 
though  not  omnipotent,  were  capable  of  working  benefit 
or  harm.  They  were  subject  to  the  universal  law  of 
dissolution ,  and  after  death  were  succeeded  by  others,  so 


I  2  2       THE  PHILOSOPHICAL  DOCTEINES  OF  BUDDHISM. 

that  there  was  not  one  Brahma  or  one  Sakra,  but  many 
successive  deities  so  named,  and  many  classes  of  deities 
under  them.  They  had  no  power  of  effecting  any  per- 
son's salvation.  On  the  contrary,  they  had  to  see  to 
their  own,  and  were  inferior  to  the  perfected  man. 

Moreover,  to  be  born  in  the  world  of  the  gods  seems 
not  to  have  implied  any  vast  accumulation  of  merit,  for 
we  read  of  a  certain  frog  that  from  simply  listening  to 
the  Buddha's  voice,  while  reciting  the  Law,  was  born 
as  a  god  in  the  Trayastrinsa  heaven  (Hardy,  p.  392). 

\In  short,  the  constant  revolving  of  the  wheel  of  life 
in  one  eternal  circle,  according  to  fixed  and  immutable 
laws,  is  perhaps  after  all  the  sum  and  substance  of  the 
philosophy  of  Buddhism.  And  this  eternal  wheel  or 
circle  has,  so  to  speak,  six  spokes  representing  six  forms 
of  existence. 

When  any  one  of  the  six  classes  of  beings  dies, 
he  must  be  born  again  in  some  one  of  these  same 
six  classes,  for  there  are  no  other  possible  ways  (gati) 
of  life,  and  he  cannot  pass  into  plants,  stones,  and 
inorganic  matter,  as  in  the  Brahmanical  system  (see 
p.  108).  If  he  be  born  again  in  one  of  the  hells  he  is 
not  thereby  debarred  from  seeking  salvation,  and  even 
if  he  be  born  in  heaven  as  a  god,  he  must  at  some 
time  or  other  leave  it  and  seek  after  a  higher  state 
still — that  of  the  perfect  man  who  has  gained  Nirvana 
and  is  soon  to  achieve  the  one  consummation  worth 
living  for,  the  one  crown  worth  striving  for — extinction 
of  personal  existence  in  Pari-nirvana  (see  pp.  138-142). 


LECTURE  VI. 

Tlie  Morality  of  Buddhism  and  its  chief  aim — ■ 
Arhatship  or  Nirvd7ia. 

The  first  questions  suggested  by  the  subject  of  this 
lecture  will  probably  be  : — 

How  could  a  life  of  morality  be  inculcated  by  one 
'who  made  all  life  proceed  from  ignorance,  and  even 
virtuous  conduct  in  one  sense  a  mistake,  as  leading  to 
continuity  of  life,  and  therefore  of  suffering  1  How 
could  the  Buddha's  first  commandment  be,  '  Destroy 
not,'  when  his  ideal  of  perfection  was  destruction  ? 
How  could  he  say,  'be  active,'  when  his  theory  of 
Karma  (pp.  no,  114)  made  action  conduce  to  misery  1 

The  inconsistency  is  evident,  but  it  is  no  less  true 
that,  notwithstanding  the  doctrine  that  all  existence 
entails  misery,  and  that  all  action,  good  or  bad,  leads 
to  future  births,  Gautama  taught  that  the  life  of  a 
man  in  higher  bodily  forms,  or  in  one  of  the  heavens, 
was  better  than  a  life  in  lower  forms,  or  in  one  of  the 
hells,  and  that  neither  a  higher  form  of  life  nor  the 
great  aim  of  Nirvana  could  be  attained  without 
righteous  action,  meditation,  and  true  knowledge. 

Buddhism,  indeed,  as  we  have  seen,  could  not  hold 
forth  as  an  incentive  to  good  behaviour  any  belief 
in  a  Creator  rewarding  and  punishing  his  creatures 
according  to  their  works,  or  pardoning  their  sins.     It 


\ 


124  THE    MORALITY   OF    BUDDHISM. 

could  not  inculcate  piety  ;  for  in  true  Buddhism  piety 
was  impossible ;  yet  like  Manu  (11.  6)  it  made  morality 
(sila)  the  basis  of  Law  (Dbarma)  ;  it  stimulated  good 
conduct  by  its  doctrine  of  repeated  births,  and  by 
pictures  of  its  numerous  heavens,  and  it  deterred  men 
from  unrighteous  acts  by  its  terrible  places  of  torment. 

Let  it  then  be  made  clear  from  the  first  that 
Buddhism,  in  inculcating  morality,  used  no  word  ex- 
pressive of  morality,  as  founded  on  the  love  and  fear 
of  God,  or  of  sin  as  an  oifence  against  God. 

In  Buddhism  the  words  klesa  (kileso),  'pain,'  and 
akusala,  'demerit,'  take  the  place  of  'sin,'  and  its  perfect 
saint  is  said  to  be  'free  from  pain'  (nishklesa)  and  from 
demerit,  not  from  sin  in  our  sense.  By  an  unrighteous 
act  it  meant  an  act  producing  suffering  and  demerit  of 
some  kind  (p.  113),  and  it  bade  every  man  act  righteously 
in  order  to  escape  suffering  and  to  accumulate  merit 
(knsala),  and  thus  work  out  his  own  perfection — that 
is  to  say,  his  own  self-extinction. 

Doubtless  Buddhism  deserves  credit  for  laving^  stress 
on  right  belief,  right  words,  right  work,  instead  of 
on  ceremonial  rites ;  and  on  the  worship  of  Hindu 
gods ;  but  it  had  its  own  idea  of  right.  It  urged 
householders  to  abandon  the  world,  or  else  to  be  dili- 
gent in  serving  its  monks  for  the  working  out  of  their 
own  salvation;  and  while  making  morality,  meditation, 
and  enlightenm.ent  its  indispensable  factors  in  securing 
perfection,  it  made  perfection  consist  in  freedom  from 
the  delusion  that  '  I  am ;'  and  in  deliverance  from  an 
individual  existence  inseparably  bound  up  with  misery. 

Mark,  too,  another  contradiction.    It  inculcated  entire 


DIVISION    OF   THE    MORAL   CODE.  1 25 

self-dependence  in  working  out  this  kind  of  perfection, 
and  yet  it  set  before  its  disciples  three  guides ;  namely, 
the  Buddha's  own  example,  the  Law  (Dharma),  and 
the  example  of  the  whole  body  of  monks  and  perfected 
saints  (Sarigha). 

We  now  turn  to  its  fuller  moral  system,  keeping  this 
distinct  from  its  philosophy  and  metaphysics,  and  freely 
admitting  that  there  are  in  Buddhist  morality  many 
things,  true,  honourable,  just,  pure,  lovely,  and  of  good 
report. 

It  is  fair  to  point  out  at  the  outset  that  Buddhist 
morality  was  not  a  purely  external  matter.  It  divided 
men  into  the  outwardly  correct  and  internally  sincere. 
The  mere  outwardly  correct  Buddhists  might  include 
monks  as  well  as  laymen,  though  a  higher  standard  of 
profession  was  expected  of  monks.  The  internally 
sincere  were  the  really  earnest  seekers  after  perfection 
(monks  and  laymen),  and  were  divided  into  four  classes, 
representing  four  conditions  of  the  inner  life,  lower, 
higher,  still  higher,  and  highest,  culminating  in  perfect 
Saintship,  Arhatship,  and  Nirvana  (p.  132). 

At  the  same  time  there  was  not  much  hope  of  saint-    ^ 
ship  except  through  celibacy  and   monkhood ;    for  in 
true    Buddhism    the    notion   of   holy    family-life   was 
almost  a  contradiction  in  terms. 

Of  course  the  Buddhist  moral  code  soon  passed 
beyond  the  eightfold  path  propounded  by  Gautama  in 
his  first  sermon  (see  p.  44),  and  Dr.  Oldenberg  has 
shown  that  in  the  absence  of  a  systematically  arranged 
code,  we  may  still  trace  out  amid  a  confusion  of  pre- 
cepts the  three  leading  duties  of  external  moral  conduct 


126  THE    M0RA.L1TY    OF    BUDDHISM. 

(sila),  of  internal  mental  concentration  (samadlii),  and 
of  acquiring  true  wisdom  (panna  =  prajna).  Compare 
Dr.  Wenzel's  'Friendly  Epistle,'  53. 

The  five  fundamental  rules  of  moral  conduct  (sila), 
or  ratlier,  prohibitions,  were  promulgated  very  early: — 

I.  Kill  not  any  living  thing.  2.  Steal  not.  3. 
Commit  not  adultery.  4.  Lie  not.  5.  Drink  not 
strong  drink.  These  five,  having  reference  chiefly  to 
one's  neighbour,  were  called  the  fivefold  law  for  all 
classes,  including  laymen.  They  were  taken  from 
Brahmanism,  but  in  the  vows  of  the  SannyasI  the 
fifth  was  not  included.  It  was  Buddhism  probably  that 
first  interdicted  strong  drink.  It  prohibited  too  what 
the  Bnlhmans  allowed — killing  for  sacrificial  purposes. 

Five  others  of  a  more  trivial  character  for  monks 
(often  given  in  a  different  order,  p.  78)  were  added  : — 

6.  Eat  no  food,  except  at  stated  times.  7.  Use  no 
wreaths,  ornaments,  or  perfumes.  8.  Use  no  high  or 
broad  bed,  but  only  a  mat  on  the  ground.  9.  Abstain 
from  dancing,  singing,  music,  and  worldly  spectacles, 
10.  Own  no  gold,  or  silver  of  any  kind,  and  accept 
none  (Maha-vagga  I.  56).  [This  Buddhist  Decalogue 
may  be  contrasted  with  the  Mosaic  Decalogue.] 

All  ten  were  binding  on  monks  only,  and  for  the 
third  was  then  substituted  '  be  absolutely  chaste.' 

Sometimes  not  only  the  first  five  but  the  first  eight 
were  held  to  be  binding  on  laymen. 

Another  was  added  in  later  times  : — Never  think  or 
say  that  your  own  religion  is  the  best.  Never  de- 
nounce the  religion  of  others  (see  p.  90). y 

Then,  although  only  the  first  half  of  the  eightfold 


POSITIVE    INJUNCTIONS.  12  7 

path  (p.  44)  was  said  to  be  necessary  for  lav-brethren, 
the  whole  was  for  monks,  who  also  had  to  observe  the 
special  practices  already  described  (p.  76). 

All  gambling  and  games  of  chance  were  j^rohibited 
(Tevijja-Siitta  II).     Compare  Manu  IX.  221-228. 

Sometimes  five  renunciations  are  named  : — of  wife, 
of  children,  of  money,  of  life,  of  craving  for  existence 
in  future  births. 

Then  sometimes  three  (sometimes  four)  corrupting 
influences  (asava  =  asrava)  are  enumerated  —  of  lust 
(kama),  of  life,  of  ignorance,  (of  delusion.) 

Most  important  to  be  got  rid  of  are  the  ten  fetters 
(sarnyojana,  p.  45)  binding  a  man  to  existence : — 

I.  Belief  in  the  existence  of  a  personal  self  or  Ego 
(sakkaya-ditthi) ;  2.  Doubt  (vicikitsa) ;  3.  Ceremonial 
practices  (silabbata  =  sila-vrata) ;  4.  Lust  or  sensuality 
(kama)  ;  5.  Anger  (patigha)  ;  6.  Craving  for  life  in  a 
material  form  (rupa-raga)  either  on  earth  or  in  heaven ; 
7.  Longing  for  immaterial  life  (arupa-raga)  in  the 
higher  heavens ;  8.  Pride  (mana) ;  9.  Self-exaltation 
(auddhatya) ;  10.  Ignorance.  Of  these,  i,  3,  and  4, 
with  ditthi,  '  wrong  belief,'  are  the  four  constituents 
of  Upadana,  '  clinging  to  existence'  (p.  109). 

The  seven  jewels  of  the  law  (p.  49)  are — i,  the  five 
contemplations  or  reflections ;  2.  the  four  right  exer- 
tions (p.  50)  ;  3.  the  four  paths  to  supernatural  power 
(p.  50)  ;  4.  the  five  moral  forces  (p.  50) ;  5.  the  right 
use  of  the  five  organs  of  sense  ;  6.  the  seven  limbs  of 
knowledge  (p.  50)  ;  7.  the  eightfold  path  (p.  44). 

The  five  above-named  reflections  are  —  i.  on  the 
thirty-two  impurities  of  the  body;   2.  on  the  duty  of 


128  THE    MORALITY    OF   BUDDHISM. 

displaying  love  (Maitri)  towards  all  beings;  3.  on  com- 
passion for  all  who  suffer;  4.  on  rejoicing  with  all  who 
rejoice ;  5.  on  absolute  indifference  (upeksha)  to  joy  or 
sorrow.  These  contemplations  (bhavana)  in  Buddhism 
take  the  place  of  prayer.  The  last  is  the  highest.  The 
first  is  also  a  Sati-patthana  (p.  49).  They  must  not  be 
confused  with  the  meditations  (l)hyanas,  p.  209). 
-^  Then  come  six  (or  ten)  transcendent  virtues  called 
Paramitas,  '  leading  to  the  further  shore,'  for  Arhats. 
These,  too,  every  Bodhi-sattva  had  to  practise  before 
he  could  attain  Buddhahood.  They  were: — i.  Gene- 
rosity or  giving  (Dana)  to  all  who  ask,  even  the  sacri- 
ficing of  limbs  or  life  for  others ;  this  is  most  important ; 
2.  Virtue  or  moral  conduct  (Sila) ;  3.  Patience  or  toler- 
ance (Kshanti) ;  4.  Fortitude  or  energy  (Virya) ;  5. 
Suppression  of  desire  (Nekkhamma  =  naishkamya),  or, 
according  to  some,  profound  contemplation  ;  6.  Trans- 
cendental wisdom  (Pamia  =  Prajna).  To  which  are 
added  —  7.  Truth  (Satya)  ;  8.  Steadfast  resolution 
(Adhishthana) ;  9.  Good-will  or  kindness  (Maitra)  ; 
10.  Absolute  indifference  or  imperturbability  or  apathy 
(Upeksha),  resulting  in  a  kind  of  ecstatic  quietude. 

This  kind  of  memorial  tabulation  in  lists  of  4,  5,  7,  8, 
10,  etc.,  is  of  course  a  product  of  later  Buddhism. 

I  now  give  examples  from  the  Dharma-pada : — 

'  By  oneself  is  evil  done  ;  by  oneself  is  one  injured  ; 
by  oneself  is  evil  left  undone  ;  by  oneself  is  one  purified ; 
no  one  purifies  another.'    (Compare  Manu  IV.  240.) 

*  Better  than  dominion  over  the  earth,  better  than 
going  to  Heaven,  or  having  sovereignty  over  the  worlds, 
is  the  attainment  of  the  first  step  in  sanctification.' 


EXAMPLES   FROM    DHARMA-PADA.  I  29 

'  Not  to  commit  evil,  to  accumulate  merit  by  good 
deeds  (kusalassa  upasampada),  to  purify  the  heart,  this 
is  the  doctrine  of  the  Enlightened'  (165,  178,  183). 

*  As  a  frontier  town  is  guarded  ^  within  and  without, 
so  guard  thyself.'     (Dh.  315.) 

*  He  who  holds  back  rising  anger  like  a  rolling 
chariot,  him  I  call  a  real  driver ;  any  other  merely 
holds  the  reins.'    (Dh.  222.    Compare  Manu  II.  S8.) 

'  Let  a  man  overcome  anger  by  gentleness,  let  him 
overcome  the  evil  by  good  ;  the  parsimonious  by  libe- 
rality, the  liar  by  truth.'     (Dh.  223.    Manu  VI.  47,  48.) 

'  The  fully  enlightened  finds  no  satisfaction  even  in 
heavenly  pleasures;  but  only  in  suppression  of  desires,' 

*  One  by  one,  little  by  little,  moment  by  moment,  a 
wise  man  frees  himself  from  personal  impurities  as  a 
refiner  blows  away  the  dross  of  silver.'  (Dh.  187,  239.) 

'  There  is  a  treasure  laid  up  in  the  heart,  a  treasure 
of  charity,  purity,  temperance,  soberness.  A  treasure, 
secure,  impregnable,  that  no  thief  can  steal ;  a  treasure 
that  follows  after  death.  (Compare  Manu  IV.  241.) 
Universal  science,  all  the  perfections,  supernatural 
knowledge,  supreme  Buddhaship  itself  this  treasure 
can  procure.'     (Childers'  Nidhi-kanda.) 

The  following  are  some  of  the  blessed  states  described 
in  the  Mahamangala-sutta.  They  prove  that  Gautama 
required  married  men  to  discharge  their  duties  faithfuUy, 

'  The  succouring  of  mother  and  father,  the  cherishing 
of  child  and  wife,  and  the  following  of  a  peaceful  calling, 
this  is  the  greatest  blessing '  (mangalam  uttamam). 

^  The  body  is  often  compared  to  a  city  with  nine  gates  or  aper- 
tures, which  have  to  be  guarded  (viz.  two  eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  etc). 

K 


130  THE    MORALITY    OF    BUDDHISM. 

*  The  giving  alms,  a  religious  life,  aid  rendered  to 
relations,  blameless  acts,  this  is  the  greatest  blessing.' 

*  Reverence  and  humility,  contentment  and  grateful- 
ness, the  hearing  of  the  Law  at  the  right  time,  this  is 
the  greatest  blessing.' 

*  Patience  and  lowly  speech,  association  with  reli- 
gious men,  recitation  of  the  Law  at  the  right  time,  this 
is  the  greatest  blessing.' 

*  Self-mortification  and  chastity,  discernment  of  the 
noble  truths,  perception  of  Nirvana,  this  is  the  greatest 
blessing.' 

In  the  Anguttara  (II.  iv.  2)  it  is  said  that  no  adequate 
return  can  be  made  by  children  to  parents  '  even  by 
menial  service.'  With  Gautama,  to  honour  father  and 
mother  was  better  than  to  worship  the  gods  of  heaven. 

Many  other  examples  might  be  given.  Not  only  was 
a  man  forbidden  to  kill,  he  was  never  to  injure. 

Then  in  the  Eajovada  Jataka  we  have  the  story  of 
the  one  king  '  who  overcomes  the  strong  by  strength, 
the  soft  by  softness,  the  good  by  goodness,  and  the 
wicked  by  wickedness  ; '  and  of  the  other  king  '  who 
conquers  anger  by  calmness,  the  wicked  by  goodness, 
the  stingy  by  gifts,  the  liar  (alika-vadinam)  by  truth.' 

Other  precepts  require  a  man  to  exercise  charity  and 
respect  towards  all  aged  persons,  teachers,  servants,  and 
animals.     He  was  to  set  an  example  of  self-sacrifice. 

It  is  recorded  of  Gautama  Buddha  that  on  one  occa- 
sion he  plucked  out  his  own  eyes,  and  that  on  another 
he  cut  off  his  own  head,  and  that  on  a  third  he  cut  his 
own  body  to  pieces  to  redeem  a  dove  from  a  hawk. 

Yet  we  repeat  that  with  all  this  apparently  sublime 


AIM    OF   BUDDHIST   MORALITY.  I31 

morality  no  true  idea  of  sin,  as  displeasing  to  a  Holy 
God,  was  connected  with  the  infraction  of  the  moral 
code.  Nor  did  a  Buddhist  always  avoid  harming  others 
from  any  true  reverence  for  life.  He  was  to  cherish 
the  life  of  others,  but  his  chief  motive  was  the  fear 
that  by  not  doing  so  he  would  entail  the  misery  of 
continuous  life  on  himself;  and  his  chief  motive  for 
avoiding  anger  was  that  it  was  incompatible  with 
that  equanimity,  which  ought  to  characterize  every 
wise  man  who  aimed  at  the  extinction  of  his  own 
personahty. 

The  ease  with  w^hich  charitable  acts  might  be  per- 
formed is  amusingly  illustrated  by  a  story  told  in  Hue's 
travels  in  Tibet.  A  certain  zealous  fellow-traveller  (who 
considered  that  it  was  quite  possible  to  be  at  the  same 
time  a  good  Buddhist  and  a  good  Christian)  invited  the 
French  missionaries  to  co-operate  with  him  in  perform- 
ing charitable  acts  to  commemorate  the  termination  of 
a  fatiguing  journey,  especially  by  providing  worn-out 
travellers,  like  themselves,  with  horses.  The  mission- 
aries pleaded  their  own  poverty,  but  to  their  surprise 
were  told  that  they  were  only  required  to  draw  horses 
on  paper,  which  were  taken  to  the  edge  of  a  precipice, 
thrown  up  into  the  air,  and,  certain  formularies  being 
recited,  were  carried  away  by  the  wind  and  changed  into 
real  horses  by  the  power  of  Buddha. 

Let  us  by  no  means,  however,  shut  our  eyes  to  the 
praiseworthy  feature  of  the  Buddhist  system  mentioned 
at  page  125 — its  recognition  of  the  need  of  inner  purity 
and  sanctification — an  inner  Buddhism  of  the  heart, 
without  which  even  a  monk  was  no  true  Buddhist,     Of 

K  2 


132         THE  MORALITY  OF  BUDDHISM. 

course  the  Law  could  be  observed  superficially  without 
any  real  heart-belief  or  heart-purity. 

When  the  inner  heart-condition  of  a  Buddhist  is 
described,  he  is  said  to  be  walking  on  one  of  four  paths 
(6attaro  Magga),  and  is  then  called  Ariyo  {  =  Arya), 
'worthy  of  reverence'  (distinguished  from  Prithag-jana, 
*  an  ordinary  professing  Buddhist ').  To  avoid  confound- 
ing these  paths  with  the  eightfold  path  (p.  44)  it  would 
be  better  to  speak  of  them  as  four  stages  of  inner  sanc- 
tification,  Dhyana,  *  meditation,'  of  four  kinds,  is  the 
chief  means  of  entering  and  passing  through  these  stages 
(p.  32),  which  once  entered  can  never  be  abandoned. 

The  first  stage  is  that  of  the  man — be  he  monk  or 
layman — who  is  just  converted,  by  an  inner  awakening, 
to  true  heart-Buddhism.  This  mail  has  freed  himself 
from  the  first  three  fetters — namely,  delusion  of  self, 
doubts  about  the  Buddha's  doctrine,  and  dependence 
on  external  rites  (p.  127).  He  is  called  Sotapanno, 
'one  who  has  entered  the  stream'  (Srota-apanna),  in- 
evitably carrying  him  onwards — though  not  necessarily 
in  the  same  body — to  the  calm  ocean  of  Nirvana,  and 
his  state  is  called  Sotapatti.  He  can  only  be  re-born  as 
a  god  or  man,  but  not  in  the  four  lower  births  (p.  121). 

Mark  that  the  doctrine  of '  perseverance '  is  a  remark- 
able feature  in  this  phase  of  the  Buddhist  system. 

The  second  stage  is  that  of  the  man  who  has  nearly 
freed  himself  from  the  first  five  fetters,  but  has  a 
sufficient  number  left  to  cause  one  more  birth  on  the 
earth.     He  is  called  Sakad-agiimi  (Sakrid-rig°). 

The  third  stage  is  that  of  the  man  who  is  quite  free 
from. the  first  five  fetters.     Such  a  man  can  onlv  be 


FOUii   PATHS    OR    STAGES    OF    MOKAL   PEEFECTION.    1 33 

re-born  in  a  Brahma  heaven,  from  which  he  reaches 
Nirvana.  He  is  therefore  called  An-agami,  *  one  who 
will  not  come  back  to  earth.' 

The  fourth  stage  is  that  of  the  completely  freed 
man  who  attains  Arhatship  (Arahattam)  in  this  life,  and 
will  at  death  experience  no  re-birth.  There  is,  of  course, 
a  difference  between  one  who  has  only  just  entered  each 
stage  of  the  journey  and  one  who  has  reached  the 
terminus.  And  this  Arhatship  is  open  to  all  (even  to 
women),  though  only  likely  to  be  attained  by  true 
monks  or  true  nuns.  The  name  Arhat  (Pali  Araha,  in 
Ceylon  Kahat),  '  most  deserving '  (root  arli),  is  signifi- 
cant of  the  highest  merit ;  for  the  Arhat  is  perfect, 
freed  from  all  pain  (nishklesa),  from  all  the  ten  fetters, 
from  all  attachment  to  existence  (upadana)  whether  on 
earth  or  in  heaven,  and  from  all  re-creative  Act-force. 
He  has  already  entered  Nirvana,  and  while  still  living 
he  is  dead  to  the  world.  He  is  the  Jivan-mukta,  'eman- 
cipated living  man,'  of  the  Yoga.  By  the  force  of  the 
fourth  Dhyana,  he  has  gained  the  Abhijnas  (Abhinna), 
or  '  transcendent  faculties  of  knowledge,'  the  inner  eye, 
inner  ear,  knowledge  of  all  thoughts,  and  recollection  of 
previous  existences,  and  the  extraordinary  powers  over 
matter  called  Iddhi  ( =  Eiddhi).  In  short  he  is  Asekha, 
'  one  who  has  nothing  to  learn.' 

Although,  theoretically,  a  layman  and  even  beings 
existing  in  other  spheres,  might  enter  the  stream  lead- 
ing to  Arhatship  (see  p.  90)  without  becoming  monks, 
yet  it  is  evident  that  as  a  rule  it  was  only  likely  to 
be  entered  by  persons  who  renounced  the  world  and 
led  a  celibate  monastic  life. 


134  '^^^   MORALITY   OF    BUDDHISM. 

But  of  Arhats  there  are  three  grades  : — 

First,  the  simple  Arhat  (described  above),  who  has 
attained  perfection  through  his  own  efforts  and  the 
doctrine  and  example  ot  a  supreme  Buddha,  but  is  not 
himself  such  a  Buddha,  and  cannot  teach  others  how  to 
attain  Arhatship,  though  he  associates  with  others. 

Secondly,  and  second  in  rank,  but  far  above  the 
simple  Arhat,  the  Pratyeka-Buddha  or  Sohtary  Saint, 
who  has  attained  perfection  for  himself  and  by  himself 
alone,  and  not  as  a  member  of  any  monastic  Order,  nor 
through  the  teaching  of  any  supreme  Buddha  (except  in 
some  former  birth).  This  solitary  hermit-like  Arhat — 
a  kind  of  concentration  of  isolated  or  selfish  sanctity — 
is  symbolized  by  a  rhinoceros.  He  does  not  appear  on 
earth  at  the  same  time  with  a  supreme  Buddha,  and 
has  not  the  same  epithets  (p.  23)  applied  to  him. 

Thirdly,  the  supreme  Buddha  or  Buddha  j^ar  excellence 
(once  a  Bodhi-sattva),  who,  having  by  his  own  self- 
enlightening  insight  attained  perfect  knowdedge  (sam- 
bodhi),  and  having,  by  the  practice  of  the  transcendent 
virtues  (p.  128)  and  through  extinction  of  the  passions 
and  of  all  desire  for  life,  become  entitled  to  that  complete 
extinction  of  bodily  existence  (pari-nirvana),in  which  the 
perfection  of  all  Arhatship  must  end,  has  yet  delayed 
this  consummation  that  he  may  become  the  Saviour  of  a 
suffering  world — not  in  the  same  manner  as  the  God-sent 
Saviour  of  Christianity,  but  by  teaching  men  how  to  save 
themselves.  This  is  the  supreme  Buddha,  the  founder 
of  the  wdiole  monastic  Order,  immeasurably  superior 
both  to  Pratyeka-Buddhas  and  to  all  mere  Arhats. 

He  said  of  himself  (Maha-vagga  I.  6,  8), — '  I  am  the 


ARHATSHIP.       SERIES  OF  BUDDHAS.  1 3  5 

all-subduer  (sabbabhibhu) ;  the  all-wise ;  I  have  no 
stains  ;  through  myself  I  possess  knowledge  ;  I  have  no 
rival  (patipuggalo)  ;  I  am  the  chief  Arhat — the  highest 
teacher ;  I  alone  am  the  absolutely  wise  (Sambuddha) ; 
I  am  the  Conqueror  (Jina) ;  all  the  fires  of  desire  are 
quenched  (sitibhuto)  in  me ;  I  have  Nirvana  (nibbuto).' 
See  p.  42  of  this  volume. 

This  seems  a  marvellous  assumption  on  the  part  of 
one  who  never  claimed  to  be  other  than  a  man  ;  yet  he 
had  taken  the  idea  from  Brahmanism,  which  held  that 
its  saints  could  surpass  all  gods  (Brahma  only  excepted). 

Such  supreme  Buddhas,  who  are  perfect  knowers, 
and  also  perfect  teachers  of  the  truth,  are  only  mani- 
fested on  the  earth  at  long  intervals  of  time. 

Gautama  is  the  fourth  Buddha  of  the  present  age 
(Bhadra-Kalpa).  He  was  a  Kshatriya ;  his  three 
mythical  predecessors — Kraku-c6handa,  Kanaka-muni, 
andKasyapa — having  been  sons  ofBrahmans.  He  is  to 
be  followed  by  the  fifth  Buddha,  Maitreya  (a  name  mean- 
ing '  full  of  love  towards  all  beings'),  but  not  until  the 
doctrine  of  Gautama  has  passed  out  of  men's  memory 
after  five  thousand  years  (p.  181).  In  their  previous 
existences  Gautama  and  his  predecessors  were,  (see  pp. 
98,  112,)  Bodhi-sattvas^  'beings  who  have  knowledge 
(derived  from  intellect)  for  their  essence,'  a  name  borne 
by  all  destined  to  become  supreme  Buddhas  as  well  as 
by  the  first  of  G-autama's  successors,  Maitreya. 

This   coming  Buddha  is,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter, 

^  In  fact  Gautama  remained  a  Bodhf-sattva  until  he  was  thirtj'-four 
or  thirty-five,  when  he  attained  perfect  enlightenment  and  Buddhahood. 


136  THE    MOEALITY    OF   BUDDHISM. 

an  object  of  universal  reverence  among  later  Buddhists 
of  all  sects  as  a  kind  of  expected  Messiah  or  Saviour. 
Often,  indeed,  he  is  more  honoured  than  Gautama  him- 
self, because  he  is  interested  in  the  present  order  of 
things,  as  well  as  in  the  future,  while  Gautama  Buddha 
and  all  his  predecessors  have  passed  away  into  non- 
being. 

Twenty  -  four  mythical  Buddhas  (the  first  being 
Dipamkara,  '  Light-causer  ')  are  held  to  have  appeared  ^ 
before  Gautama  in  preceding  cycles  of  time.  Many 
particulars  about  them  are  given,  including  their  birth- 
places, the  length  of  their  lives  and  their  statures. 
Gautama  himself  is  said  to  have  met  some  of  them 
during  his  transmigrations.  Even  the  trees  under  which 
they  achieved  supreme  wisdom  are  enumerated. 

Sometimes  the  last  six  of  the  twenty -four  are  reckoned 
with  Gautama  Buddha  as  constituting  seven  principal 
Buddhas  ^,  who  seem  to  have  been  grouped  together 
to  correspond  with  the  Brahmanical  seven  Manus  of  the 
l^resent  Kalpa.  Usually,  however,  Gautama  is  held  to 
be  the  last  of  twenty-five  Buddhas. 

Clearly,  then,  the  principal  hnes  of  Buddhist  moral 
teaching  all   converge  to  one  focus — to  the  perfected 


^  Their  names  are  Dipamkara,  Kaundinya,  Mangala,  Sumaiias, 
Raivata,  Sobhita,  Anavama-darsin,  Padma,  Nfirada,  Padmottara, 
Sumedhas,  Sujata,  Priya-darsin,  Artha-darsin,  Dharma-darsiii,  Sid- 
dhartha,  Tishya,  Pushya,  Vipasyin,  Sikhin,  Visva-bhu,  Krakucanda, 
Kanaka-muni  (or  Konagamana),  Kasyapa. 

^  Beginning  with  Vipasyin.  These  are  the  only  Buddhas  mentioned 
in  the  Digha-nikaya.  If  the  coming  Buddha  Maitreya  is  reckoned, 
then  Vipasyin  must  be  omitted. 


NIRVANA.  1 


1  '^ 


Arhat  or  ratlier  to  a  still  brighter  point  of  light  in  the 
perfect  Buddha  waiting  for  his  reward — the  nectar 
of  the  eternal  state  of  complete  Nirvana. 

And  this  compels  us  to  attempt  some  explanation  of 
Nirvana.  In  the  first  place  forty-six  synonyms  of  it 
are  given  in  the  Abhidhanappadipika,  e.g.  Mokkha  or 
Mutti, '  deliverance,'  Nirodha,  '  cessation,'  Tanhakkhaya 
(trishna-kshaya),  'destruction  of  lust/  Arupa,  Khema, 
Kevala,  Apavagga,  '  emancipation,'  Nibbuti  ( =  nirvriti), 
'  quietude,'  Amata  (Amrita),  '  deathless  nectar.' 
^  The  following  is  from  Rhys  Davids'  Jataka  (p.  4) : 
'One  day  the  wise  Sumedha  fell  a-thinking,  thus: — 
"  Grievous  is  re-birth  in  a  new  existence,  and  the  dis- 
solution of  the  body  in  each  successive  place  where  we 
are  re-born.  I  am  subject  to  birth,  to  decay,  to  disease, 
to  death.  It  is  right,  being  such,  that  I  should  strive 
to  attain  the  great  deathless  Nirvana,  which  is  tranquil, 
and  free  from  birth,  decay,  sickness,  grief,  and  joy. 

'  "  For  as  in  this  world  there  is  pleasure — the  opposite 
of  pain — so  where  there  is  existence  there  must  be  its 
opposite,  the  cessation  of  existence ;  and  as  where 
there  is  heat  there  is  also  cold  which  neutralizes  it,  so 
there  must  be  a  Nirvana  that  extinguishes  (the  fires 
of)  lust  and  the  other  passions ;  and  as  in  opposition 
to  a  bad  and  evil  condition  there  is  a  good  and  blame- 
less one,  so  where  there  is  evil  Birth  there  must  also  be 
Nirvana,  called  the  Birthless,  because  it  puts  an  end  to 
all  re-birth. 

'  "  Just  as  a  man  who  has  fallen  into  a  heap  of  filth, 
if  he  beholds  afar  off  a  great  pond  covered  with  lotuses 
of  five  colours,  ought  to  seek  that  pond,  saying,  '  By 


138  THE    MORALITY    OF    BUDDHISM. 

what  way  shall  I  arrive  there?'  but  if  he  does  not  seek 
it,  the  fault  is  not  that  of  the  pond ;  even  so  where 
there  is  the  lake  of  the  great  deathless  Nirvana."  ' 

What,  then,  is  the  proper  definition  of  Nirvana 
(Pali  Nibbana)  ?  In  venturing  on  an  explanation  of 
so  controverted  a  term,  I  feel  rather  like  a  foolhardy 
person  walking  barefoot  over  thorny  ground.  Never- 
theless I  may  fearlessly  assert  two  things  about  it. 

The  first  is,  that  the  term  Nirvana  was  not  originated 
Ijy  Gautama.  It  was  an  expression  common  to  both 
Bnlhmanism  and  Buddhism,  and  most  of  its  synonyms 
such  as  moksha,  apavarga,  and  nirvriti  are  still  common 
to  both.  It  was  current  in  Gautama's  time,  and  cer- 
tainly occurs  in  the  Maha-bharata,  parts  of  which  are 
of  great  antiquity. 

In  the  celebrated  episode  of  that  poem  called  Bha- 
gavad-gita,  V.  24,  we  find  the  following  : — 

'  That  Yogi  who  is  internally  happy,  internally  satis- 
fied and  internally  illumined,  attains  extinction  in  the 
Supreme  Being,  and  becomes  that  Being'  (Yo  'ntahsukho 
'ntararamas  tathantarjyotir  eva  yah,  ]  Sa  Yogi  Brahma- 
nirvanam^  Brahma-bhiito  'dhigacchati). 

The  second  point  is  that  it  would  be  about  as  un- 
reasonable to  expect  that  Nirvana  should  always  be 
explained  in  one  way  as  to  restrict  Brahmanism 
and  Buddhism — two  most  elastic,  comprehensive,  and 
Protean  systems,  which  have  constantly  changed  their 
front  to  suit  changing  circumstances  and  varying  na- 

^  The  expression  Brahma-nirvana  is  repeated  several  times  after- 
wards. Mark,  too,  that  one  of  the  god  Siva's  names  in  the  ^Nlaha- 
bharata  is  Nirvanam. 


NIRVANA.  139 

tional  peculiarities  at  different  epochs  and  in  different 
countries — to  one  hard  and  fast  outline. 

It  is  certainly  singular  that  although  the  term 
Nibbana  (Sanskrit  Nirvana) — like  some  of  the  crucial 
theological  terms  of  Christianity — has  led  to  endless 
discussions,  it  does  not  occur  often  in  the  Pali  texts. 
The  word  Arahattam,  '  Arhatship/  is  more  common. 

Nirvana,  of  cou.rse,  originally  means  '  the  state  of  a 
blown-out  flame.'  Hence  its  first  meaning  is  properly 
restricted  to  the  complete  extinction  of  the  three  chief 
fires  ^  of  lust,  ill-will,  and  delusion,  and  a  total  cessation 
of  all  evil  passions  and  desires  ^,  especially  of  the  desire 
for  individual  existence  (name  and  form). 

Folio  wins;  on  this  is  the  state  of  release  from  all 
pain  and  from  all  ignorance,  accompanied  by  a  sense  of 
profound  rest — a  state  achieved  by  all  Arhats  while 
still  living  in  the  world  ^,  and  notably  by  the  Buddha 
at  the  moment  when  he  attained  Buddhahood,  forty- 
five  years  before  his  final  Pari-nirvana.  Nirvana  then 
is  not  necessarily  the  annihilation  of  all  existence. 
It  is  the  absence  of  klesa  (p.  124),  as  in  the  Yoga 
system,  and  corresponds  ver}'  much  to  the  Brahmanical 
Apavarga,  described  in  the  Nyaya,  and  defined  by  a  com- 
mentator, Vatsyayana,  to  be  Sarva-duhkha-cheda  ('  the 
cutting  off  of  all  pain ').     In  short,  it  is  Arhatship. 

^  Eaga,  dvesha,  moha.     Eleven  fires  are  sometimes  enumerated. 

2  Dr.  Ehys  Davids  holds  that  the  Buddha  only  advocated  the  sup- 
pression of  good  desires ;  FausboU  says  '  desire  in  all  its  forms.'  I 
agree  with  the  latter. 

'  When  I  was  on  the  confines  of  Tibet,  this  was  described  to  me  by 
a  Tibetan  scholar  as  the  unchangeable  state  of  conscious  beatitude. 


I40  THE  MORALITY  OF  BUDDHISM. 

But  besides  Nirvana  we  have  the  expression  Pari- 
nirvana.  This  is  not  merely  the  blowing  out  of  the 
fires  of  the  passions  but  also  the  entire  cessation  of  re- 
births, with  extinction  of  all  the  elements  or  seeds  of 
bodily  existence.  This  took  place  when  the  Buddha 
died  or  'passed  away'  after  innumerable  previous  deaths. 
Practically,  however,  in  Buddhism  the  death  of  every 
ordinary  being  amounts  to  this  kind  of  Nirvana  ;  for,  if 
there  is  no  recollection  of  any  former  state  of  exist- 
ence in  the  new  being  created  by  Karma,  what  is  every 
death  but  utter  personal  extinction  ? 

Now  with  regard  to  the  Nirvana  of  Arhatship,  no 
one  can  have  come  in  contact  with  the  natives  of 
India  in  their  own  country,  without  observing  that  for 
a  genuine  aristocratic  Brahman  to  allow  others  to  see 
him  give  way  to  any  passion,  to  exhibit  any  emotion 
or  enthusiasm,  is  regarded  as  a  proof  of  weakness. 

We  can  easily  understand,  therefore,  that  when 
the  Buddha  exhorted  his  followers  to  strive  after  a 
wholly  impassive  condition,  he  addressed  a  sympathetic 
audience. 

Long  before  his  exhortations  were  heard  in  India, 
his  fellow-countrymen  held  persons  in  the  highest  re- 
spect who  claimed  to  have  entii-ely  suppressed  their 
passions.  The  only  peculiarity  in  Gautama's  teaching 
was  that  he  made  this  object  incumbent  on  all  true 
Buddhists  alike,  without  exception.  And  this  state  of 
absolute  imperturbability  is  well  indicated  to  the  eye  by 
the  usual  attitude  of  the  images  which,  after  Gautama's 
death,  were  carved  to  represent  him — an  attitude  of 
passionless  composure,  and  dignified  calm. 


NIEVANA    AND    PARI-NIEVANA.  I41 

In  the  interesting  Pali  work  Milinda-prasna  (Milinda- 
panho),  containing  a  conversation  on  the  subject  of 
Nirvana  between  King  Milinda  (Menander)  and  the 
monk  Nagasena  (supposed  to  have  lived  about  140  B.C.), 
tlie  latter  compares  it  to  the  pure  water  which  quenches 
fire,  and  to  the  fathomless  Ocean  freed  from  trouble  and 
impurities,  which  no  river,  however  vast,  can  fill  to 
overflowing ;  and  to  the  Air,  which  cannot  be  seen  or 
explained,  though  it  enters  our  bodies  and  fills  us  with 
life  ;  and  to  Space,  which  is  eternal  and  infinite,  and 
beyond  the  power  of  man  to  conceive. 

I  trust  I  shall  not  shock  my  Indian  friends  if  I  illus- 
trate this  condition  by  a  comparison  of  my  own  drawn 
from  the  animal  creation.  In  crossing  the  Indian 
Ocean,  when  unruffled  bv  the  slio;;htest  breeze,  I  have 
sometimes  observed  a  jelly-fish  floating  on  the  surface 
of  the  transparent  water,  apparently  lifeless.  The 
creature  is  evidently  neither  asleep  nor  awake.  It 
certainly  is  not  thinking  about  anything,  and  its  con- 
sciousness is  doubtful.  All  that  can  be  affirmed  about 
it  is  that  it  seems  to  be  drinking  in  the  warm  fluid  in 
a  state  of  lazy  blissful  repose. 

No  Buddhist,  at  least,  could  look  at  such  a  sight  with- 
out beinar  reminded  of  this  idea  of  Nirvana — the  idea 
of,  so  to  speak,  floating  in  perfect  repose  and  peace  and 
cessation  from  all  pain,  and  all  work,  and  even  all 
thought,  on  a  kind  of  ocean  of  half  conscious,  half  un- 
conscious beatitude.  It  is  not  consciousness,  neither  is  it 
unconsciousness.  It  is  symbolized  by  a  full-blown,  per- 
fectly formed  lotus — a  frequent  emblem  of  perfection — • 
reposing  on  a  calm  mirror-like  lake. 


142 


THE    MORALITY    OF    BUDDHISM. 


With  regard  to  Pari-nirvana^ — the  complete  termma- 
tion  of  migrations  and  passing  away  of  all  the  elements 
of  bodily  existence — if  this  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  Brahmanical  idea  of  absorption  into  an  impersonal 
gpji-it — whereby  the  Ego  of  personal  identity  is  de- 
stroyed— it  is  a  distinction  without  much  difference. 

Strictly,  however,  in  Buddhism  the  dissolution  of  the 
body  leaves  no  surviving  personality  or  individuality, 
and  consequently  Pari-nirvana  is  not  properly  described 
either  as  absorption  into  a  void  (sunya)  or  as  annihila- 
tion. It  is  simply  the  absolute  termination  of  a  series 
of  conscious  bodily  organizations.  The  Buddha  himself 
evaded  dogmatic  definitions,  and  would  probably  have 
said  : — it  is  not  life,  neither  is  it  non-life  ;  it  may  be 
compared  to  infinite  space  (sunya)  which  is  not  to  be 
comprehended  or  explained. 

We  should  also  bear  in  mind  that  although  Nirvana 
and  Pari-nirvana  constitute  the  ultimate  goal  to  which 
all  the  morality  of  a  true  Buddhist  tends,  they  have  no 
place  either  in  the  aims  or  thoughts  of  the  ordinary 
adherents  of  Buddhism  at  the  present  day. 

The  apex  of  all  the  desires,  the  culminating  point  of 
all  the  ambition  of  the  most  religiously-minded  Bud- 
dhists of  modern  times,  points  to  a  life  in  one  of  the 
heavens,  while  the  great  mass  of  the  people  aim  only 
at  escaping  one  of  the  hells,  and  elevating  themselves  to 
a  hi oher  condition  of  bodilv  existence  in  their  next  birth 
on  this  earth,  and  perhaps  on  that  very  part  of  this  earth 
which  is  the  scene  of  their  present  toils,  joys,  and  sorrows. 

Or  A  nupddi-^esha,  that  is,  Nirvana  without  remains  or  remnants 
of  the  elements  of  existence.     See  Childers'  Pali  Dictionary,  s.  v. 


TEUE    AIM    OF    BUDDHIST    MOEALITY.  143 

It  only  remains  for  me  to  caution  those  who  may  be 
impressed  with  the  beauty  of  some  of  the  precepts 
of  tlie  moral  code  and  its  theory  of  perfection,  as 
ending  in  Pari-nirvana,  against  deducing  therefrom 
too  optimistic  an  estimate  of  the  Buddhist  system. 
Buddhist  morality  is  like  a  showy  edifice  built  on  the 
sand.  It  is  a  thoroughly  fair-weather  structure,  in- 
capable of  standing  against  flood,  storm,  and  tempest. 

It  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words  as  a  scheme 
for  the  establishing  of  a  paradox — for  the  perfecting  of 
one's  self  by  accumulating  merit  with  the  ultimate  view 
of  annihilating  all  consciousness  of  self — a  system  which 
teaches  the  greatest  respect  for  the  life  of  others,  with 
the  ultimate  view  of  extinguishing  one's  own. 

It  must,  in  short,  be  clearly  understood  that  if  any 
comparison  be  instituted  between  Buddhism  and  Chris- 
tianity in  regard  to  the  self-abnegation,  or  self-sacrifice 
which  each  claims  to  inculcate,  the  self  to  be  got  rid 
of  in  Buddhism  is  not  the  selfishness  condemned  by 
Christianity,  but  rather  the  self  of  individuality — the 
self  of  individual   life,  and  personal  identity. 

To  be  righteous  in  a  Christian  sense  a  man  must 
be  God-like,  and  to  be  righteous  in  a  Buddhistic  sense 
a  man  must  be  Buddha-like ;  but  the  righteousness 
of  the  Buddhist  is  not  the  perfection  of  holiness  by  the 
extinction  of  sin  committed  against  God,  but  the 
perfection  of  merit-making,  with  the  view  of  earning 
happiness  for  himself  in  a  higher  state  hereafter. 

For  every  Buddhist  is  like  a  trader  who  keeps  a 
ledger,  with  a  regular  debtor  and  creditor  account,  and 
a  daily  entry  of  profit  and  loss. 


144  "THE    MORALITY   OF    BUDDHISM. 

He  must  not  take,  make,  or  hoard  money.  He  is 
forbidden  to  store  up  a  money-balance  in  a  worldly  bank, 
but  he  is  urged  to  be  constantly  accumulating  a  merit- 
balance  in  the  bank  of  Karma. 

In  conclusion,  let  the  Buddha  enforce  his  own  moral 
teaching  in  his  own  way,  by  allegory  and  illustration 
drawn  from  real  life : — When  asked  by  a  Brahman 
'  why  he  did  not  plough  and  sow  and  earn  his  own 
bread  r  he  replied  to  the  following  effect:  'I  do 
plough  and  sow  and  eat  immortal  fruit  (Amata  = 
Amrita) ;  my  plough  is  wisdom  (panna)  ;  my  shaft  is 
modesty  ;  my  draught-ox,  exertion  ;  my  goad,  earnest 
meditation  (sati) ;  my  mind,  the  rein.  Faith  (saddha) 
in  the  doctrine  is  the  seed  I  sow ;  cleaving  to  hfe  is  the 
weed  I  root  up ;  truth  is  the  destroyer  of  the  weed  ;  Nir- 
vana and  deliverance  from  misery  are  my  harvest.' 
(Kasi-bharadvaja-sutta  of  the  Sutta-nipata.) 

This  may  be  compared  with  St.  Luke  viii.  ii-i  5  ;  but 
have  we  not  here  a  contrast  rather  than  a  comparison  ? 

Perhaps  some  may  think  that  the  contrast  is  not 
unfavourable  to  Buddhism.  Nay,  possibly  some  may 
complain  that  I  have  not  enlarged  sufSciently  on 
the  remarkable  resemblance  between  certain  moral 
precepts  in  the  Buddhist  code  and  in  the  Christian. 
I  admit  this  resemblance — I  admit  that  both  tell  us : 
— not  to  love  the  world  ;  not  to  love  money  ;  not  to 
show  enmity  towards  our  enemies  ;  not  to  do  un- 
righteous or  impure  acts — to  overcome  evil  by  good, 
and  to  do  to  others  as  we  would  be  done  by. 

Nay,  I  admit  even  more : — I  allow  that  some 
Buddhist     precepts     go     beyond     the     corresponding 


BUDDHIST  AND  CHRISTIAN  MORALITY  CONTRASTED.    1 45 

Christian  injunctions.  For  Buddhism  prohibits  all 
killing — even  of  animals  and  noxious  insects.  It 
demands  total  abstinence  from  stimulating  drinks — 
disallowing  even  moderation  in  their  use.  It  ex- 
cludes all  who  aim  at  perfect  sanctity  from  the  holy 
estate  of  matrimony.  It  bids  a  man,  if  he  strives 
after  perfection,  abandon  the  world  and  lead  a  life  of 
monkhood.  In  fine,  its  morality  is  essentially  a  monk- 
hood-morality. It  enjoins  total  abstinence,  because  it 
dares  not  trust  human  beings  to  be  temperate.  How 
indeed  could  it  trust  them  when  it  promises  them  no 
help,  no  divine  grace,  no  restraining  power  ? 

The  glory  of  Christianity  is  that  having  freely  given 
that  grace  and  that  power  to  man,  it  trusts  him  to 
make  use  of  the  gift.  It  seems  to  speak  to  him  thus : — 
Thy  Creator  wills  to  trust  thee  and  to  be  trusted  by 
thee  ;  He  has  endowed  thee  with  freedom  of  choice, 
and  therefore  respects  thy  liberty  of  action.  He  im- 
poses no  rule  of  total  abstinence  in  regard  to  natural 
desires  ;  He  simply  bids  thee  keep  them  within  bounds, 
so  that  thy  moderation  may  be  known  unto  all  men ; 
He  places  thee  in  the  world  amid  trials  and  temp- 
tations and  says  to  thee,  '  My  grace  is  sufficient  for 
thee '  and  by  its  aid  thou  may  est  overcome  them  all. 

Yes,  the  grand  difference  between  the  morality  of 
Buddhism  and  the  morality  of  Christianity  is  not  in 
the  letter  of  the  precepts,  but  in  the  principle  and 
motive  power  brought  to  bear  on  their  application. 

Buddhism  says  : — Be  righteous  by  yourselves,  and 
through  yourselves,  and  for  the  getting  rid  of  all  life  in 
yourselves.     Christianity  says  : — Be  righteous  through 


146  THE    MOLALITY    OF    BUDDHISM. 

the  power  of  God's  gift  of  eternal  life  in  His  Son. 
In  a  word,  Buddhism  founds  its  morality  on  self, 
Christianity  founds  its  morality  on  Christ. 

The  Buddha  said  to  his  followers  : — Take  nothing 
from  me,  trust  to  no  one  but  to  yourselves. 

Christ  said,  and  says  to  us  still : — Take  all  from 
me  ;  take  this  free  gift.  Put  on  this  spotless  robe. 
Eat  this  Bread  of  Life.     Drink  this  Livino-  Water. 

Think  you  that  any  one  who  receives  a  priceless 
gift,  is  likely  willingly  to  insult  the  Giver  of  it  1 
Think  you  that  any  one  who  accepts  a  snow-white 
robe  is  likely  willingly  to  soil  it  by  impure  acts'? 
Think  you  that  any  one  who  tastes  life-giving  Bread 
is  likely  to  relish  husks  ?  or  that  any  one  who  draws 
deep  draughts  at  a  living  Well  is  likely  to  prefer  the 
polluted  water  of  a  stagnant  pool  ? 

Beware,  then,  of  judging  by  the  mere  letter ;  or, 
should  you  insist  on  so  judging,  bear  in  mind  that 
everywhere  the  Buddha's  Law  is  a  dead  letter,  because 
the  Buddha  is  dead ;  just  as  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
would  be  a  dead  letter,  if  Christ  were  dead. 

Finally,  let  me  say  to  the  admirers  of  Buddhism  : — 

If  you  insist  on  jDlacing  its  mornl  code  on  the  same 
level  with  that  of  Christianity,  ask  yourselves  one 
plain  question — Who  would  be  the  more  likely  to  lead 
a  godly,  righteous,  and  sober  life,  a  life  of  moderation 
and  temperance,  a  life  of  holiness  and  happiness — the 
man  who  has  learnt  his  morality  from  the  dead,  the 
extinct  Buddha,  or  the  man  who  draws  his  morality 
and  his  holiness  from  the  living,  the  eternal,  the  life- 
giving  Christ  ? 


LECTURE   Vn. 

Changes  in  Buddhism  and  its  disa^jpearance  from, 

India. 

In  the  preceding  Lectures  I  have  confined  myself 
chiefly  to  the  consideration  of  what  may  be  called  true 
Buddhism  as  taught  by  its  Founder  and  developed  by 
his  immediate  followers  and  disciples  during  the  first 
two  or  three  centuries  of  its  existence  in  the  land  of 
its  birth,  India. 

To  attempt  an  explanation  of  all  the  subsequent 
phases  of  Buddhism  would,  as  I  have  before  stated,  re- 
quire the  command  of  unlimited  time.  All  I  can  hope 
to  accomplish  in  the  concluding  Lectures  is  to  give 
a  very  general  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  changes  Bud- 
dhism underwent  before  it  died  out  in  India,  and  of  its 
corruptions  in  some  of  the  countries  bordering  on  India 
and  in  North-eastern  Asia. 

And  I  may  add  that  those  who  desire  correct  views 
on  this  subject,  ought  not  to  trust  to  mere  inferences 
and  theories  founded  on  a  critical  perusal  of  the  so- 
called  Sacred  Books  of  the  Buddhists.  For  it  is  certain 
that  without  any  practical  experience  of  what  Buddhism 
has  become  in  modern  times — I  mean  such  an  experi- 
ence as  can  only  be  gained  by  residing  or  travelling 
in  countries  where  Buddhism  now  prevails — the  mere 
study  of  its  ancient  scriptures  is  likely  to  be  misleading. 

L  2 


148  CHANGES   IN   BUDDHISM. 

At  tlie  same  time  book-knowledge  is  indispensable, 
and  it  is  essential  to  bring  to  tlie  study  of  later  Bud- 
dhism a  scholarlike  acquaintance  with  Sanskrit  and  Pab. 
Even  a  knowledge  of  Tibetan  ought  to  be  added. 
Nor  ought  the  inquirer  to  be  ignorant  of  the  science  of 
comparative  religion,  seeing  that  the  principles  of  that 
science  may  throw  light  on  many  difScult  questions. 

For  example,  a  student  of  comparative  reUgion  will 
be  prepared  to  exj^ect  that  all  religious  systems  will 
diverge  more  or  less  from  their  original  type  in  the 
hands  of  enthusiastic  disciples,  who  are  ever  inclined  to 
amplify  their  master's  teaching  and  to  explain  it  differ- 
ently according  to  each  man's  peculiar  temperament 
and  mental  bias,  until  in  the  end  the  original  deposit 
of  simple  doctrine  becomes  overlaid  with  layer  upon 
layer  of  adventitious  matter. 

Nor  will  he  be  surprised  to  find  that  the  tendency 
of  every  religious  movement  is  towards  deterioration 
and  disintegration.  Nor  will  it  appear  strange  to  him 
that  the  chief  conservative  force  is  antagonism.  As 
time  goes  on  disagreements  among  the  followers  of  any 
great  leader  seem  to  be  inevitable,  and  always  lead  to 
sectarian  divisions  and  subdivisions.  Yet  it  is  this 
opposition  of  religious  parties  that  usually  operates  to 
mitigate  the  worst  extremes  of  corruption,  and  tends  to 
bring  about  re-forming  movements. 

Even  the  progress  of  Christianity — as  history  shows 
too  well — furnishes  illustrations  of  the  law  of  deteriora- 
tion, disintegration,  and  re-formation.  At  all  events, 
it  is  certain  that  no  study  of  the  New  Testament  is 
likely  to  give  a  true  idea  of  the  varvmg  condition  of 


RECOIL   TO    THE    OPPOSITE    EXTREME.  1 49 

the  Christian  religion  as  exhibited  at  the  present  day 
in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

But  here  it  is  important  to  caution  the  student  of 
religions  against  forcing  a  comparison  between  two 
systems  of  doctrine  like  Christianity  and  Buddhism, 
which  are  radically  and  essentially  o^Dposed  to  each  other. 

The  unchristianKke  incrustations  and  divisions  which 
have  marred  the  original  teaching  of  the  Head  of  our 
religion  exist  in  sjnte  of  Christianity.  They  are  not 
the  result  of  any  development  of  its  first  principles  ; 
whereas,  on  the  contrary,  the  corruptions  and  schisms  ^^ 
of  Buddhism  are  the  natural  and  inevitable  outcome 
of  its  own  root-ideas  and  fundamental  doctrines. 

In  proof  of  this  let  us  revert  for  a  moment  to  the 
insight  we  have  gained  into  the  origin  of  Buddhism. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  most  remarkable  feature 
of  the  Buddha's  teaching,  so  far  as  it  has  been  stated  in 
the  preceding  Lectures,  was  that  he  altogether  ignored 
the  existence  in  human  nature  of  any  spiritual  aspira- 
tions, affections,  or  instincts  higher  than  or  distinct 
from  the  natural  aspirations,  affections,  and  instincts  of 
humanity;  and  of  any  force  outside  of  human  nature 
capable  of  aiding  a  man's  own  efforts  in  his  struggle 
for  salvation.  Not  that  he  reviled,  or  poured  contempt 
on  the  religion  prevalent  among  his  fellow-countrymen, 
but  that  he  found  no  place  in  his  system  for  an  external 
Euler  and  Controller  of  the  Universe,  and  would  have 
stultified  his  own  teaching  had  he  acknowledged  a 
Supreme  Creator,  guiding  and  upholding  all  things  by 
His  will,  and  always  at  hand  to  co-operate  with  His 
creatures  and  listen  to  their  supplications. 


150  CHANGES   IN   BUDDHISM. 

If  it  were  possible,  in  short,  to  condense  into  a  cate- 
gorical statement  the  scattered  utterances  of  a  man 
whose  teaching  was  rarely  dogmatic,  we  might  affirm 
that  it  was  to  the  effect  that  for  any  man  to  depend  on 
a  Being  higher  than  himself,  or  to  centre  the  noblest 
affections  of  his  nature  on  a  merciful,  just,  and  holy 
God,  whose  presence  he  yearned  for,  whose  aid  he  prayed 
for,  and  to  whose  image  he  longed  to  be  assimilated — 
was  a  mere  delusion,  though  perhaps  a  harmless  one. 
He  therefore  set  aside  every  supposed  supernatural 
revelation  as  useless  and  incapable  of  proof.  He  2:)re- 
scribed  no  prayer,  he  enjoined  no  form  of  worship,  he 
established  no  real  church,  and  instead  of  a  priesthood 
or  clergy,  ordained  to  aid  men  in  their  progress  heaven- 
wards or  to  console  them  in  the  trials  of  life,  he  founded 
an  Order  of  Monks  pledged  to  denounce  human  life  as 
not  worth  living,  and  bound  to  abstain  from  all  parti- 
cipation in  human  affairs. 

It  is  true  that  he  deserves  commendation  for  having 
substituted  moral  conduct  for  useless  superstitious 
rites,  but  his  moral  code  had  no  other  aim  than  the 
suppression  of  lusts  and  desires  (p.  139,  note  2),  and  his 
peculiar  stoical  philosophy  had  no  other  object  than  the 
removal  of  the  ignorance  which  obstructed  the  path  to 
true  knowledge — the  knowledge  that  all  hfe  is  fraught 
with  pain  and  misery,  and  not  worth  perpetuating. 

It  is  admitted,  too,  that  its  moral  precepts  were  of 
a  high  order ;  but  it  promised  man  no  divine  aid  in 
observing  them,  it  supplied  him  with  no  motive  power 
except  the  selfish  hope  of  benefiting  himself  in  future 
states  of  corporeal  existence,  and  it  provided  no  remedy 


RECOIL   TO   THE    OPPOSITE    EXTREME.  ]  5  I 

in  case  his  attempts  to  obey  its  injunctions  ended  in 
failure.  How,  indeed,  could  it  do  anv  of  these  thinirs 
when  its  only  idea  of  sin  was  not  the  infraction  of  God's 
law,  but  the  commission  of  an  act  fraught  with  evil 
consequences  to  the  doer  ? 

Furthermore,  it  was  guilty  of  the  inconsistency  of 
bidding  a  man  cherish  a  fellow-feeling  for  others  and 
diligently  engage  in  all  good  works,  while  it  made  his 
true  salvation  depend  on  his  giving  up  all  love  for  wife 
and  children,  and  setting  before  himself,  as  his  final 
goal,  a  condition  of  absolute  indifference  and  inactivity. 

What,  therefore,  I  am  at  present  concerned  to  point 
out  is  that,  if  the  essential  doctrines  of  primitive  Bud- 
dhism were  of  the  character  thus  summarized,  a  rebound 
from  one  extreme  to  another  became  inevitable,  and 
that  such  a  reaction  was  due  to  the  very  nature  of  the 
original  teaching  of  its  Founder.  In  point  of  fact  it 
was  not  a  development  that  took  place,  but  a  recoil — 
like  the  recoil  of  a  spring  held  down  for  a  time  by 
a  powerful  hand  and  then  released.  And  this  resulted 
from  the  simple  working  of  the  eternal  instincts  of 
humanity,  which  insisted  on  making  themselves  felt 
notwithstanding  the  unnatural  restraint  to  which  the 
Buddha  had  subjected  them ;  so  that  every  doctrine  he 
taught  developed  by  a  kind  of  irony  of  fate  into  a 
complete  contradiction  of  itself. 

Let  us  take  a  few  examples  : — 

Buddhism,  we  know,  started  with  the  doctrine  that 
all  idea  of  marriage,  or  of  happy  home-life,  was  to 
be  abandoned  by  wise  men — by  all  who  aimed  at 
becoming  true  Buddhists   (in  direct  contradistinction, 


152  CHANGES   IN   BUDDHISM. 

we  may  note,  to  the  primary  Christian  truth  that  it 
is  not  good  for  created  man  to  be  alone,  and  that  there- 
fore  his  Creator  created  a  help  meet  for  him — a  truth 
confirmed  in  a  remarkable  manner  by  the  Founder  of 
the  Christian  Church  when  He  gave  the  first  sign  of 
His  divine  commission  at  a  marriage  ceremony). 

What,  then,  followed  on  the  Buddha's  original  un- 
natural teaching  in  regard  to  marriage  ? 

Of  course  an  immediate  result  was  that,  although 
according  to  the  Buddha's  ordinance  any  one  who  aimed 
at  perfect  sanctity  was  bound  to  lead  a  celibate  life,  the 
rule  against  marriage  was  admitted  to  be  inapplicable 
to  the  majority  of  human  beings  living  in  the  world. 
The  mass  of  the  peoj^le,  in  short,  were  necessarily 
offenders  against  the  primary  law  of  Buddhism.  Though 
called  lay-Buddhists,  they  were  not  '  wise  men '  in  the 
Buddhist  sense  of  the  term  (pp.  86,  88).  There  is  even 
evidence  that  among  certain  monkish  communities 
in  Northern  countries  the  law  against  marriage  was 
soon  relaxed.  It  is  well  known  that  at  the  present  day 
Lamaseries  in  Sikkim  and  Tibet  swarm  with  the  children 
of  monks,  though  called  their  nephews  and  nieces^  And 
far  worse  than  this,  Buddhism  ultimately  allied  itself 
with  Tantrism  or  the  worship  of  the  female  principle 
(sakti),  and  under  its  sanction  encouraged  the  grossest 
violations  of  decency  and  the  worst  forms  of  profligacy. 

It  was  the  same  in  regard  to  the  unnatural  vow  of 

^  This  was  remarked  by  Hooker  when  travelling  in  Sikkim.  Sir 
Richard  Temple  in  his  Journals  (II.  216)  asserts  that  he  often  found 
married  monks  in  Sikkim,  and  they  make  no  secret  of  it.  They  are 
free  to  resign  the  monastic  character  when  they  choose. 


KECOIL    TO    THE    OPPOSITE   EXTREME.  1 53 

poverty.  Monasteries  and  Lamaseries  now  possess  im- 
mense revenues,  and  monks  are  often  wealthy  men. 

Then  again,  what  resulted  from  the  Buddha's  ignor- 
ing the  existence  of  a  God,  and  telling  his  disciples 
to  abstain  from  depending  on  any  Being  higher  than 
what  man  himself  could  become  1  Of  course  this  was 
opposed  to  every  man's  innermost  sense  of  his  own 
needs  and  of  his  own  nature.  For  man  is  so  constituted 
that  he  cannot  be  happy  without  loving  and  trusting 
a  Being  higher  than  himself — a  Being  who  takes  the 
initiative  in  loving  His  creatures  and  is  the  proper 
object  of  their  loftiest  affections.  Nor  can  man  in  his 
secret  heart  regard  either  himself  or  any  one  of  his 
fellow-men  as  a  being  worthy  of  his  highest  adoration. 
Nor  can  he  set  his  aifections  on  a  blank  or  an  abstraction. 
And  so,  in  spite  of  the  Buddha's  teaching,  his  followers 
would  act  on  their  own  convictions.  They  would  believe 
in  beings  higher  than  themselves,  and  in  a  personal 
Creator  knowable  and  lovable  by  themselves,  and  know- 
ing and  loving  His  creatures.  Nay,  they  ultimately 
converted  the  Buddha  himself  into  the  very  God  he 
denied,  calling  him  '  The  chief  god  of  all  the  gods  ' 
(Devatideva). 

Again,  what  was  the  effect  of  the  Buddha's  leading 
men  to  believe  that  all  supernatural  revelation  was  un- 
needed — that  all  enlightenment  came  from  within,  and 
that  every  man  was  competent  to  think  out  true  know- 
ledge for  himself  by  the  exercise  of  his  own  reasoning 
powers,  in  the  way  that  the  Buddha  himself  had  done  ? 

Of  course  the  result  was  that  the  generality  of  men 
who  shrank  from  the  effort  of  thinking  out  truth  for 


154  CHANGES    IN   BUDDHISM. 

themselves,  and  were  wholly  destitute  of  any  faculty 
for  doing  so,  insisted  on  believing  in  a  revelation  from 
an  external  power,  and  ended  in  attributing  infallibility 
to  the  Buddha's  own  teaching,  and  worshipping  the 
Law  of  Buddhism — as  a  visible  embodiment  of  their 
deceased  teacher — with  all  the  ardour  of  enthusiastic 
bibliolatrists. 

Furthermore,  what  followed  on  the  Buddha's  deny- 
ing that  any  prayer,  however  earnest,  could  liave  any 
power  to  modify  the  operation  of  natural  laws  ? 

Of  course  men  longed  for  some  form  of  supplication 
to  a  higher  power,  and  so  the  Buddha's  disciples  not 
only  composed  prayer-formularies,  but  invested  the 
mere  letters  and  syllables  of  such  forms  with  an  efficacy 
which  no  other  body  of  religionists  has  ever  thought 
of  attributing  to  prayer  of  any  kind. 

They  not  only  repeated  mystical  sentences,  which 
were  called  prayers,  though  really  mere  charms,  be- 
lieving that  an  occult  virtue  was  inherent  in  the 
words,  but  invented  a  method  of  manufacturing  such 
sentences  (Dharani)  like  marketable  commodities. 

They  fabricated  prayers,  in  fact,  by  machinery,  in- 
scribing them  on  wheels  or  on  rolls  inserted  in  cylinders, 
which  in  the  present  day  are  made  to  revolve  by  hand 
or  by  the  force  of  water  and  wind,  and  will  possibly, 
with  the  spread  of  science,  be  impelled  by  steam- 
power,  so  that  each  revolution  may  count  for  an  in- 
finite number  of  repetitions,  and  be  set  down  to  the 
credit  of  the  owner  or  manager  of  the  mechanism. 

Yet  again,  what  was  the  inevitable  consequence  of 
the  Buddha's  rejection  of  the  doctrine  that  any  benefit 


SECTS    AND    DIVISIONS    IN   BUDDHISM.  1 55 

could  accrue  to  human  beings  from  religious  services 
conducted  by  regularly  ordained  priests,  and  of  bis 
instituting  in  their  stead  an  Order  of  Monks,  who  were 
little  better  than  a  community  of  drones,  contributing 
nothing  to  the  wealth  of  the  world,  doing  nothing  of 
any  utility  to  any  one,  and  taught  to  regard  inaction 
as  the  path  of  true  wisdom  'i 

Naturally,  men  craved  for  spiritual  helpers,  guides, 
and  intercessors,  and  so  by  degrees  these  very  monks 
conducted  elaborate  religious  services,  and  a  compli- 
cated hierarchy  was  organized  in  Tibet,  even  more 
intricate  and  far-reaching  in  its  ramifications  than  that 
of  the  modern  Komish  Church. 

And  once  more,  what  resulted  from  the  Buddha's 
objection  to  provide  visible  images  and  material  objects 
of  worship,  with  a  view  to  stimulate  devotion  or  aid 
meditation  1 

Of  course  concrete  and  objective  Buddhism  of  some 
kind  became  a  necessity.  It  became  essential  to  make 
concessions  to  the  weakness  and  infirmity  of  human 
nature,  which  required  external  aids,  and  declined  to 
be  devoted  to  an  ideal  void,  or  to  meditate  on  a  pure 
abstraction.  Even  the  Founder  of  Buddhism  himself 
seems  to  have  felt,  as  we  shall  see,  that  his  hold  on  the 
memory  of  his  followers  would  depend  on  their  venerat- 
ing certain  objects  and  symbols  after  his  death.  Un- 
happily for  the  purity  of  Buddhism,  but  quite  in  con- 
formity with  the  inveterate  tendencies  of  humanity, 
the  Buddha's  disciples  pushed  veneration  of  external 
objects  to  an  extreme.  They  were  not  contented  with 
mere  reverence  shown  to  the  relics  of  the  Buddha's 


156  CHANGES   IN   BUDDHISM. 

burnt  body  and  the  shrines  containing  them.  They 
worshipped  the  tree  under  which  he  attained  Buddha- 
hood,  the  seat  on  which  he  sat,  the  prints  of  his  feet, 
his  shadow  supposed  to  be  impressed  on  rocks,  the 
utensils  he  used,  the  books  containing  the  Law,  the 
wheel  which  symbolized  both  the  propagation  and 
the  character  of  his  doctrine,  and  finally  bowed  down 
before  carved  representations  of  his  body  and  images  of 
all  kinds.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  Buddhist  countries 
idols  are  far  more  numerous  than  among  any  other 
idolatrous  people  in  the  world. 

Lastly,  what  resulted  from  the  Buddha's  teaching 
that  the  ultimate  end  to  which  men's  efforts  ought  to 
be  directed  was  Nirvana — that  is,  the  total  extinction 
of  all  individual  existence  and  personal  identity  1 

Of  course  men  instinctively  recoiled  from  utter  self- 
annihilation,  and  so  the  Buddha's  followers  ended  in 
changing  the  true  idea  of  Nirvana  and  converting  it 
from  a  condition  of  non-existence  into  a  state  of  hazy 
beatitude  in  celestial  regions,  while  they  encouraged 
all  men — whether  monks  or  laymen — to  make  a  sense 
of  dreamy  bliss  in  heaven,  and  not  total  extinction  of 
life,  the  end  of  all  their  efforts. 

But  it  was  not  only  this  natural  and  inevitable 
recoil  to  the  opposite  extreme  that  ultimately  brought 
about  an  entire  change  in  primitive  Buddhism.  Another 
cause  must  also  be  taken  into  account. 

We  have  already  explained  the  nature  of  the  tie 
which  bound  Buddhism  to  Brahmanism,  from  the  first 
day  on  which  Gautama  sat  as  a  disciple  at  the  feet  of 
the  Brahman  ])hilosophers  Udraka  and  Alara  (p.  29). 


MAHA-YANA   OR    GREAT   METHOD.  1 57 

Now,  although  this  tie  was  soon  loosened,  and  although 
the  Buddha  struck  out  a  line  of  his  own,  and  a  separation 
took  place,  yet  the  two  systems  stood  on  so  much  com- 
mon ground  that  they  were  always  ready  to  draw 
together  again. 

At  all  events,  it  Ts  probable  that  one  system  never 
expelled  the  other,  and  that  the  constant  attrition 
and  'Contact  which  took  place  between  Brahmanism 
and  Buddhism,  led  to  a  considerable  splitting  up  of  the 
original  fabric  of  Buddhism,  involving,  of  course,  many 
divisions  and  subdivisions  of  Buddhistic  thought,  some 
of  which  were  closely  allied  to  the  later  developments 
of  Brahmanical  philosophy. 

In  the  Sarva-darsana-sangraha  four  principal  sects 
of  Buddhism  are  enumerated,  which  must  have  taken 
root  early  on  Indian  soil. 

These  four  were  the  Vaibhashika,  Sautrantika,  Ma- 
dhyamika,  and  Yogacara.  Of  these  the  first  two  witli 
their  subdivisions  ^  were  realistic,  and  were  established 
— though  not  perhaps  thoroughly  formulated  and 
systematized — in  very  early  times,  long  before  the 
council  of  Kanishka ;  while  the  two  later  schools  are 
described  as  idealistic,  the  Madhyamika  being  a  Bud- 
dhistic form  of  the  Vedanta  philosophy,  and  the  Yogacara 
agreeing  generally  with  the  Yoga  system. 

Indeed  there  is  good  evidence  that  Buddhism  de- 
veloped in  India  a  greater  number  of  schools  and  phases 

^  The  Vaibhashika  was  divided  into  Sarvastivada  (assertion  of  the 
real  existence  of  all  things),  Mahasaiighika,  Sammatlya  (said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Upali),  and  Sthavira ;  the  Sautrantika  had  also  its 
own  subdivisions. 


158  CHANGES    IX   BUDDHISM. 

of  thono-ht  than  Brahmaiiism  itself.     Some  autliorlties 

o 

enumerate  eighteen  divisions  (corresponding  perhaps 
to  the  eighteen  original  disciples,  pp.  47-73)  which 
existed  in  king  Kanishka's  time — that  is,  in  the  first 
century  of  our  era,  while  others  specify  thirty-two  ;  and 
in  the  fourth  century  we  find  the  Chinese  traveller 
Fa-hien  (p.  160)  making  allusion  to  as  many  as  ninety- 
six  (Dr.  Legge's  translation,  p.  62). 

We  cannot  wonder  then  that  the  author  of  the 
Sarva-darsana-sangraha  expressed  himself  in  rather 
strong  language  to  the  following  effect : — 

'  Though  the  venerated  Buddha  be  the  only  one 
teacher,  his  disciples  are  manifold ;  just  as  when  the 
sun  has  set,  the  thief  and  other  evil  doers,  the  theo- 
logical student  and  others  understand  that  it  is  time 
to  set  about  their  occupations,  according  to  their 
several  inclinations.' 

Yet,  after  all,  it  was  chiefly  in  the  North,  and  in 
consequence  of  the  council  held  by  Kanishka,  India's 
greatest  Buddhist  king  after  Asoka  ^  (see  p.  69),  that 
the  original  features  of  Buddhism  underwent  the 
greatest  change  and  became  overlaid  with  coating  after 
coating  of  extraneous  matter.  It  was  there,  in  Northern 
rearions,  in  the  vallev  of  the  Indus,  that  the  Protean 
system  called  Maha-yana  arose,  and  grew,  by  the  opera- 
tion  of  the   usual   laws  of  accretion,   conglomeration, 

^  Another  great  king  was  the  celebrated  Harsha-vardhana  or 
SHaditya  of  Kanauj,  who  flourished  about  A.  D.  610-650,  and  who  is 
said  to  have  founded  an  era  formerly  much  used  in  Northern  India. 
He  ruled  from  the  Indus  to  the  Ganges,  and  his  doings  are  described 
by  Hiouen  Thsang      (Beal's  Records,  I.  210-221.) 


MAHA-YANA   AND    HINA-YANA.  I  59 

disintegration,  and  reintegration,  into  a  congeries  of 
heterogeneous  doctrines,  including  the  worship  of 
Bodhi-pattvas,  deified  saints,  and  personal  gods. 

Naturally  the  adherents  of  this  wider  method  spoke 
disparagingly  of  the  simpler  system  prevalent  in  the 
South,  whose  sacred  books  were  the  Tri-pitaka  of 
Ceylon  written  in  the  ancient  vernacular  (Pali).  That 
system  they  designated  Hina-yana,  '  the  defective 
method,'  not  denying  however  that  their  own  enlarged 
system  grew  out  of  and  included  the  simpler  one. 

There  arose,  too,  a  third  method,  or  '  vehicle '  of 
salvation,  called  '  the  middle  method '  (Madhyama-yana). 
This,  however,  is  not  so  well  known,  and,  being  a  com- 
promise between  the  other  two,  never  gained  many 
adherents,  though  it  is  still  recognized  in  Tibet — the 
Tibetans  often  speaking  of  Tri-yana,  or  '  the  three 
vehicles.' 

At  all  events,  it  is  only  necessary  for  practical  pur- 
poses to  recognize  the  distinction  of  the  Great  and  Little 
Vehicle — the  Maha-yana^  and  the  Hina-yana.  And  it 
may  be  stated  generally  that  the  inhabitants  of  Nepal, 
Tibet,  China,  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  and  Japan  have 
always  shown  a  preference  for  the  Maha-yilna,  or 
'  Great  Vehicle,'  while  the  people  of  Ceylon,  Burma, 
and  Siam  have  always  preferred  the  '  Little  Vehicle.' 

At  the  same  time,  it  is  important  to  note  that  while 
the  Buddhists  of  Northern  countries  are  supposed  to 
be    disciples    of    the    Maha-yana    or    Great    Way    of 

^  The  Maha-yana  is  said  to  be  connected  with  the  Madhyamika 
and  Yogacara  Schools,  and  the  Hina-yana  with  the  Vaibhashika  and 
Sautrantika. 


l6o  CHANGES   IN   BUDDHISM. 

Salvation,  the  Buddhism  of  each  Nortliern  country  differs 
greatly  from  that  of  the  other,  and  that  the  countries 
nearest  to  India  have  still  further  complicated  the 
Maha-yana  system  by  adopting  mystical  doctrines,  and 
introducing  magic  and  other  practices  supposed  to  aid 
in  the  acquisition  of  supernatural  powers. 

It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that,  although  the 
Maha-yana  or  Great  Method  originated  on  the  Indus, 
and  the  Hina-yana  or  Little  Method,  on  the  Ganges,  the 
two  streams  of  teaching  were  not  always  confined  to 
these  two  areas,  even  on  Indian  soil. 

In  point  of  fact  they  were  often  intermixed,  and 
the  changes  thus  brought  about  in  Buddhism  will 
become  more  evident  by  referring  to  the  narratives 
of  three  well-known  Buddhist  travellers  from  China. 

Buddhism  was  introduced  into  China  between  58  and 
75  of  our  era^  but  it  was  not  till  much  later  that  Chinese 
pilgrims  visited  India — the  holy  land  of  Buddhism. 

The  first  traveller  of  whom  we  have  any  record  was 
a  certain  Chinese  Buddhist  monk  named  Fa-hien,  who 
set  out  on  a  pilgrimage  to  India  about  the  year  399  of 
our  era,  with  the  definite  object  of  searching  for  and 
carrying  back  to  China  complete  copies  of  the  Vinaya 
or  Rules  of  discipline  for  the  Order.  He  wrote  a  very 
simple  and  straightforward  account  of  his  travels^ — 
which  lasted  for  fourteen  years — and  of  his  visits  to  all 
the  spots  in  India  held  most  sacred  by  Buddhists.     He 


^  Professor  Legge's  Travels  of  Fa-hien,  p.  28. 

"^  Translated  from  the  Chinese  by  the  Rev.  S.  Beal  and  more  recently 
by  Professor  Legge. 


CHINESE   BUDDHIST   TKAVELLERS.  l6l 

was  followed  by  a  Chinese  traveller  of  less  mark,  named 
Sang  Ymi,  who  started  about  518  a.d.,  and  seems  to 
have  ended  his  journey  at  Peshawar,  or  at  least  not 
to  have  penetrated  much  further  South.  Peshawar,  we 
know,  was  a  great  Buddhist  centre,  and  there  was  a  fine 
Stujoa  there,  containing  the  alms-bowl  of  Buddha.  Then 
after  another  interval  a  much  more  celebrated  Chinese 
pilgrim  named  Hiouen  Thsang^  started  for  India  (a.d. 
629-644).  The  narrative  of  his  travels  for  about  fifteen 
years  is  perhaps  the  best  known  and  most  commonly 
quoted  of  the  three.  In  Chang  Yueh's  preface^  to  these 
travels  Hiouen  Thsang  is  described  as  '  a  Doctor  of  the 
three  Pitakas,  and  is  said  to  have  translated  657  works 
from  the  original  Sanskrit.  In  all  the  districts  through 
which  he  journeyed  he  learnt  the  dialects  and  investi- 
gated the  deep  secrets  of  religion.' 

All  three  travellers  give  information  in  regard  to  the 
prevalence  of  Buddhism  in  India  up  to  the  seventh  cen- 
tury of  our  era,  and  the  narratives  of  two — Fa-hien  and 
Hiouen  Thsang — are  invaluable  for  the  light  they 
throw  on  the  changes  which  Buddhism  underwent  in 
the  interval  of  their  travels.  Heie  and  there  the 
pilgrims  exaggerate,  especially  when  they  venture  on 
numerical  statistics  or  write  from  hearsay;  but  on  the 
whole  their  accounts  may  be  accepted,  and  we  learn  that 
Hiouen  Thsang  found  some  monasteries  in  ruins  which 
were  flourishing  in  Fa-hien's  time,  and  that  the  Maha- 

^  According  to  Dr.  Legge's  orthography  this  name  should  be 
written  Hsiien  Chwang. 

^  See  Beal's  'Records  of  the  Western  World,'  which  gives  a 
translation  of  these  travels  in  two  volumes. 

M 


1 62  CHANGES   IN   BUDDHISM. 

yana  had  supplanted  the  earlier  form  of  Buddhism, 
or  rather  co-existed  with  it  in  many  parts  of  the 
South  as  well  as  of  the  North,  and  was  to  he  found 
even  in  Ceylon  ^ 

And  this  hrings  us  face  to  face  with  the  greatest 
change  of  all — the  total  dying  out  of  Buddhism  in  the 
place  of  its  origin.  How  is  it  to  he  accounted  for  that 
no  adherents  of  either  the  greater  or  lesser  Buddhist 
systems — of  either  the  Maha-yana  or  Hina-yana — are  to 
he  found  in  India  at  the  present  moment  1 

Tlie  prohlem  is  difficult  of  solution,  and  I  can  only 
offer  a  few  suggestions  for  its  elucidation. 

In  the  first  place,  I  tliink  it  may  be  confidently 
asserted  that  the  disappearance  of  Buddhism  from  India 
was  a  very  gradual  process,  and  unattended  by  any 
serious  or  violent  religious  revolution. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  tolerant,  hberal,  and 
eclectic  spirit  which  has  characterized  Buddhism  ever 
since  the  period  of  its  first  promulgation  at  Benares. 

Such  toleration  of  the  doctrines  and  ideas  of  co-exist- 
uig  systems  had  its  advantages,  especially  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  Buddhistic  movement.  It  certainly  had 
a  proi)hy]actic  effect  in  warding  off  violent  attacks,  and 
helped  to  promote  the  diffusion  of  Buddhism  through- 
out the  numerous  countries  to  which  it  ultimately 
spread.  In  India  itself,  as  we  have  already  seen,  Bud- 
dhism was  never  aggressive  or  combative.     Its  motto 


^  Hiouen  Thsang  describes  the  Sthavira  form  of  the  Maha-yana  as 
existing  as  far  south  as  Ceylon.  He  found  ruany  monks  studying 
both  tlie  Great  and  Little  Vehicles  in  Central  India.  Beal's  Records, 
ii-  247.  254,  257. 


HOW   DID    BUDDHISM   DIE    OUT   IN   INDIA"?  1 63 

everywhere  was  persuasion  and  conciliation.  Composure, 
tranquillity,  and  absence  of  acrimony  were  stamped  on 
all  its  features.  The  very  foundation  on  which  it  was 
reared — the  very  establishment  of  a  celibate  monastic 
Order,  by  means  of  which  true  knowledge  was  to  be 
propagated— had  in  it  something  altogether  agreeable 
to  the  spirit  and  usages  of  Brahraanism. 

We  have  seen,  too,  that  tlie  Buddha  took  care  to 
show  his  respect  for  Brahmanical  traditions,  even  while 
promulgating  a  philosophical  theory  and  preaching  doc- 
trines opposed  to  all  sacerdotalism,  priestly  privileges, 
supernatural  revelation,  and  Vedic  ceremonial. 

It  does  not,  of  course,  follow  that  the  great  teacher, 
to  whom  the  majority  of  Asiatic  races  have  for  cen- 
turies looked  as  their  chosen  example,  had  not  the 
courage  of  his  opinions,  and  was  not  competent  to  fill 
the  role  of  a  religious  reformer. 

The  real  fact  was  that  he  was  too  wise  to  enter  ujoon 
any  open  crusade  against  inveterate  customs  and  ideas. 
The  peculiar  calm  of  an  Indian  atmosphere,  though 
occasionally  disturbed  by  political  storms  sweeping  from 
distant  regions,has  rarely  been  stirred  by  violent  religious 
antagonisms.  The  various  currents  of  Hindu  religious 
life  have  flowed  peacefully  side  by  side,  and  reformers 
have  generally  done  their  work  quietly.  As  for  Gautama, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  his  whole  career  was 
stamped  with  the  impress  of  his  early  surroundings,  and 
that  he  imbibed  his  tolerant  ideas  from  the  Brahmanism 
in  which  he  had  been  trained. 

It  has  been  usual  to  blame  the  Brahmans  for  their 
arrogant  exclusiveness,  but  their  arrogance  has  been 

M  2 


1 64  CHANGES   IN    BUDDHISM. 

ratber  shown  in  magnifying  their  own  caste-privileges 
and  carrying  them  to  an  extravagant  j^itch,  than  in 
preventing  any  discussion  of  their  own  dogmas,  or  in 
resenting  any  dissent  from  them. 

The  very  essence  of  Brahmanism  was  tolerance. 
Every  form  of  opinion  was  admissible  under  a  system 
which  made  every  person  and  every  object  in  existence 

anifestations  of  the  one  Being,  Brahma. 

The  only  delicate  ground,  on  which  it  was  dangerous 
for  any  reformer  to  tread,  was  caste.  The  only  unpar- 
donable sin  was  infringement  of  caste-rules.  Nor  was 
any  one  tempted  to  adopt  the  role  of  a  violent  agitator, 
when  all  were  free  to  express  any  opinion  they  liked 
without  hindrance,  provided  they  took  care  to  abstain 
from  any  act  of  interference  with  caste-privileges. 

It  does  not  appear,  in  short,  that  the  preachers  of 
either  Buddhism,  or  Vaishnavism,  or  Saivism,  or  Saktism, 
or  of  any  form  of  these  sectarian  systems,  ever  incurred 
the  special  animosity  of  the  Brahmans  or  of  each  other, 
or  ever  indulged  in  very  violent  denunciations  of  each 
other's  religious  doctrines. 

In  real  truth,  these  systems  of  doctrine  were  all 
evolved  out  of  Brahmanism.  They  were,  therefore,  not 
only  tolerated  by  Brahmanism,  but  accepted  as  the  in- 
evitable outcome  of  its  own  pantheistic  creed. 

No  doubt  each  received  at  first  a  strong  stamp  of  in- 
dividuality from  its  founder,  marking  it  off  from  other 
systems,  but  with  the  lapse  of  years  the  deeper  shades 
of  difference  grew  fainter.  Then  it  became  a  question 
which  should  become  merged  in  the  other.  In  such 
a  competition  between   rival  systems  Buddhism   had 


HOW   DID   BUDDHISM   DIE   OUT   IN   INDIA?         165 

less  chance  of  holding  its  own  than  either  Vaishnavism 
or  Saivism  ;  for  its  root-ideas — as  we  have  seen — were 
not  rooted  in  the  eternal  instincts  of  human  nature. 

Buddhism,  in  fact,  could  never  have  maintained  itself 
in  India  till  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  of  our 
era,  had  it  not  gradually,  and  to  a  great  extent  through 
interaction  with  Vaishnavism  and  Saivism,  dropped  its 
unnatural  pessimistic  theory  of  life  and  its  unpopular 
atheistic  character,  and  accommodated  itself  to  those 
systems. 

But  Buddhism  in  parting  with  its  ultra-pessimism  and 
its  atheistic  and  agnostic  ideas,  lost  its  chief  elements  of 
individuality  and  its  chief  independent  stand-point. 

Vaishnavism,  on  the  other  hand,  was  quite  alive  to 
its  own  interests,  and  had  an  eye  to  the  spread  of  its 
own  doctrines.  It  took  care  to  adopt  all  the  popular 
features  of  Buddhism.  It  vied  with  Buddhism  in  incul- 
cating universal  love,  toleration,  liberality,  benevolence, 
and  abstinence  from  injury.  It  preached  equality, 
fraternity,  and  even  in  some  cases  the  abolition  of 
caste  distinctions.  It  taught  a  succession  of  incar- 
nations or  rather  descents  (Avatara  ^)  of  divine  beings 
upon  earth  (as  Buddhism  taught  a  succession  of 
Buddhas),  and  it  even  adopted  the  Buddha  himself 
as  one  of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu. 

This,  indeed,  is  the  best  explanation  of  what  has 
happened    at   Puri    in    Orissa,   where   a   temple   once 

^  As  I  have  shown  in  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  the  term 
incarnation  is  not  strictly  expressive  of  the  Hindu  idea  of  Avatara, 
which  means  *  a  descent '  of  a  god  (or  a  portion  of  his  essence) 
in  various  forms  upon  earth. 


I  66  CHANGES   IN   BrDDHISM. 

dedicated  to  Gautama  Buddha,  and  supposed  to  contain 
a  relic  of  his  burnt  body,  was  afterwards  dedicated  to 
the  Jaoannath  form  of  Krishna  and  supposed  to  en- 
shrine one  of  his  bones,  and  where  low-caste  and  high- 
caste  both  eat  together  the  food  cooked  in  the  house  of 
that  popular  god. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  interaction  which  took 
place  between  Buddhism  and  Saivism  ;  for  Saivism,  of 
course,  was  quite  as  bent  on  the  propagation  of  its  own 
creed  as  other  systems  were.  It  vied  with  Buddhism 
in  encouraging  abstract  meditation,  and  although  it 
had  less  sympathy  than  Yaishnavism  had  with  that 
system,  it  approached  in  some  respects  so  closely  to  its 
rival,  that  when  Buddhism  disappeared  from  India, 
imagesof  Gautama  were  converted  into  representations 
of  Siva  seated  in  profound  contemplation. 

Ultimately,  the  interaction  between  the  three  systems 
proceeded  to  such  a  point  that  each  was  influenced  and 
modified  by  the  other ;  €ach  learnt  something,  or 
adopted  some  practice  from  the  other. 

It  was  thus,  too,  that  Saktism,  i.e.  the  worship  of 
energy  or  force  (Sakti),  identified  with  Siva's  consort,  was 
imported  into  Buddhism  ;  its  doctrine  of  the  self-evolu- 
tion of  all  things  from  Prakriti  having  much  that  har- 
monized with  the  Buddhist  theory  of  the  origin  of  the 
Universe.  Thus,  too,  even  Tautrism  in  its  worst  forms 
became  intermixed  with  Buddhistic  practice. 

Enough,  then,  has  been  said  to  justify  the  assertion 
that  Buddhism  was  not  forcibly  expelled  from  India 
by  the  Brilhmans.  It  simply  in  the  end — possibly  as 
late    as    the    thirteenth    century  of  our  era — became 


HOW    DID    BUDDHISM  DIE    OUT   IN   INDIA?  1 67 

blended  with  tlie  systems  which  surrounded  it,  tliough 
the  process  of  blending  was  gradual. 

It  would  certainly  be  easy  to  prove  from  the  records 
of  the  three  Chinese  travellers,  that  Buddhism  and 
Brahmanism  existed  together  in  Northern  and  Central 
India  as  quite  distinct  systems  till  at  least  the  seventh 
century  of  our  era,  if  not  always  quite  amicably,  yet 
without  any  violent  internecine  conflict.  Bitter  con- 
troversies between  the  two  rival  creeds  are  without 
doubt  clearly  alluded  to,  and  Fa-hien  in  one  passage 
states  that  '  the  Brahmans  with  their  contrary  doctrine 
became  full  of  hatred  and  envy  in  their  hearts  ^'  Yet, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  find  that  at  a  Council  held  by 
the  great  Buddhist  king  Siladitya  (Harsha-vardhana), 
whose  meritorious  acts  are  fully  described  by  Hiouen 
Thsang  (ch.  v),  and  who  had  his  capital  at  Kanouj,  in 
the  year  634  of  our  era  ^,  controversial  points  relating 
to  both  Buddhism  and  Brahmanism  were  discussed  in 
a  tolerant  spirit,  though  it  is  said  that  in  discussing 
questions  between  the  Northern  and  Southern  Buddhists, 
the  '  Little  Vehicle '  was  condemned. 

Again,  the  Buddhist  drama  caUed  Nagananda,  'joy  of 
the  snake  world  ^,'  throws  gr^at  light  on  the  amicable 

^  Professor  Legge's  tmnslation,  p.  56. 

^  There  are  four  great  Buddhist  kings  of  India  who  may  be  called 
historical,  the  dates  of  whose  reigns  roay  be  fixed  with  fair  certainty  : — 
I.  Candra-gupta,  who  was  at  any  rate  a  sjnnpathiser  with  Buddhism, 
B.C.  315-291.  2.  Asoka,  a  decided  Buddhist,  B.C.  259-222.  3. 
Kanishka  (see  p.  69).  4.  Siladitya,  above.  Some  consider  Kanishka 
to  have  founded  the  Saka  era,  dating  from  A.  D.  78. 

^  Translated  in  1872  by  Mr.  Palmer  Boyd,  and  published  with  an 
interesting  introduction  by  Professor  Cowell. 


l68  CHANGES   IN   BUDDHISM. 

relations  existing  between  the  various  sectarians  and 
religionists  in  the  days  of  king  Siladitya.  It  is  the 
only  Sanskrit  play  in  which  the  Nandi  or  opening 
prayer  invokes  the  power  of  Buddha,  thus  : — 

'  "  On  whom  dost  thou  meditate,  putting  on  a  pretence 
of  religious  abstraction,  yet  opening  thine  eyes  ?  See, 
saviour  that  thou  art,  thou  dost  not  pity  us  sick 
with  the  shafts  of  Love.  Falsely  art  thou  compassion- 
ate. Who  is  more  cruel  than  thou  ^ "  May  Buddha,  the 
conqueror,  who  was  thus  jealously  addressed  by  the 
Apsarasas  (daughters)  of  Mara  (p.  34),  protect  you  ! ' 

Professor  E.  B.  Cowell  has  shown  in  his  valuable 
Preface  that  both  this  play  and  the  sister  Hindu  play 
called  Eatuclvali  were  probably  j)ut  forth  or  at  least 
jDatronised  by  Harsha-vardhana  (Siladitya),  and  that 
both  were  probably  acted  at  the  same  period,  the  king 
being  as  much  a  Hindu  as  a  Buddhist.  Hiouen  Thsang 
praises  Harsha-vardhana  for  his  support  of  Buddhism, 
but  in  his  description  of  the  two  Convocations  held  by 
that  king,  states  that  both  Buddhists  and  Brahmans 
were  equally  honoured  by  him,  and  intimates  that  half 
his  subjects  held  one  doctrine  and  half  the  other.  In  the 
second  Convocation  which  took  place  at  Prayaga  (now 
Allahabad)  eighteen  kings  were  present  and  500,000 
monks  and  laymen.  On  the  first  day  the  statue  of 
Buddha  was  installed ;  on  the  second  day  that  of  the 
Sun,  and  on  the  third  that  of  Siva.  Alms  were  dis- 
tributed to  Brahmans  and  Buddhists  alike,  and  even 
to  the  Nirgranthas  or  Jaina  naked  heretics. 

Again  the  well-known  play  called  Malati-Madhava 
(by  Bhava-bhuti,  who  lived  at  Kanauj  in  the  beginning 


HOW   DID  BUDDHISM   DIE    OUT   IN    INDIA"?         1 69 

of  the  eiglith  century)  has  an  opening  prayer  addressed 
to  Siva,  and  yet  a  female  Buddhist  ascetic  and  her 
attendant  constitute  two  of  the  principal  dramatis  per- 
son£e,  proving  that  an  intermixture  of  the  two  creeds 
prevailed  everywhere. 

It  was  also  during  the  reign  of  Siladitya  that  the  im- 
mense monastery  at  Nalanda  near  Kaja-griha  formed  a 
seat  of  learning,  which  might  suggest  a  comparison  with 
the  learned  monkish  communities  and  even  with  the 
universities  of  medigeval  Europe  \  In  that  monastery 
might  be  seen  several  thousand  novices  and  monks  of 
the  eighteen  Buddhist  schools — all  of  them  supported 
by  royal  grants,  and  thus  enabled  both  to  perform  their 
religious  duties,  and  to  prosecute  the  study  of  philo- 
sophy, law,  and  science  in  literary  ease.  It  is  probable 
that  if  disputes  and  disagreements  upon  burning 
questions  occurred,  they  rarely  led  to  serious  conflicts, 
and  were  not  general  throughout  India,  but  confined 
to  particular  localities ;  and  I  think  it  may  be  safely 
affirmed  that  if  Buddhism  was  ever  anywhere  per- 
secuted, it  never  anywhere  persecuted  in  return. 

I  myself  was  much  struck  in  a  visit  I  paid  to  EUora 
in  the  Nizam's  territory  by  the  evidence  I  there  saw 
of  the  friendly  tolerance  which  must  have  prevailed 
between  Brahmans,  Buddhists,  and  Jains.  Biah- 
manical,  Buddhist,  and  Jaina  caves  are  there  seen  side 
by  side,  and  their  inmates  no  doubt  lived  on  terms 
of    fairly   friendly    tolerance,   much    as    the    members 

^  See  Beal's  Records,  ii.  167-172  ;  a  long  account  of  this  monastery 
visited  by  Hiouen  Thsang  is  there  given. 


I^O  CHANGES    IN    BUDDHTSM. 

of  tlie  Anglican,  Koman  Catholic,  and  Wesleyan  com- 
munions live  in  Europe  at  the  present  day. 

Even  at  Benares,  the  stronghold  of  Brahmanism,  I 
witnessed  similar  proofs  of  amicable  mutual  intercourse, 
and  at  Nasik — the  Benares  of  Western  India — the 
proximity  of  the  Buddhist  caves  and  ruined  monasteries 
which  I  visited,  made  it  abundantly  clear  that  Brah- 
mans  and  Buddhists  agreed  to  differ  and  to  avoid 
serious  quarrels. 

It  must  nevertheless  be  admitted,  that  in  the  extreme 
South  of  India,  and  perhaps  eventually  at  Benares  and 
a  few  other  strongholds  of  Brahmanism,  the  difference 
between  the  systems  became  so  accentuated  as  to  lead 
to  grievous  conflicts.  Whether  blood  was  shed  it  is 
impossible  to  prove;  but  it  is  alleged,  with  some  degree 
of  prol)ability,  that  violent  crusades  against  Buddhism 
were  instituted  by  Kumarila  and  Saiikara — two  vrell- 
known  Southern  Brahmans  noted  for  their  bigotry — 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  of  our  era.  It  does 
not  appear,  however,  that  they  were  very  successful 
either  in  the  conversion  or  extermination  of  Buddhists. 

It  may,  I  think,  be  confidently  affirmed  that  what 
ultimately  happened  in  most  parts  of  India  was,  that 
Vaishnavas  and  Saivas  crept  up  softly  to  their  rival 
and  drew  the  vitality  out  of  its  body  by  close  and 
friendly  embraces,  and  that  instead  of  the  Buddhists 
being  expelled  from  India,  Buddhism  gradually  and 
quietly  lost  itself  in  Vaishnavism  and  Saivism.  In 
fact,  by  the  begiiming  of  the  thirteenth  century  very 
little  Buddhism  remained  on  Indian  soil.  In  a  philo- 
sophical drama,  called  '  the  Else  of  the  Moon  of  Know- 


HOW    DID    BUDDHISM   DIE    OUT   IN   INDIA  ?         1 7 1 

ledge '  (Prabodha-dandrodaya),  written  probably  about 
the  twelfth  century,  the  approaching  triumph  of  Brah- 
manism  over  Buddhism  is  clearly  indicated ;  for  the 
Buddhist  and  other  heretical  sects  are  represented  as 
belonging  to  the  losing  side. 

Yet,  after  all,  it  is  scarcely  correct  to  say  that  Bud- 
dhism ever  wholly  died  away  in  India.  Its  name  indeed 
perished  there,  but  its  spirit  survived,  and  its  sacred 
places  remain  to  this  day.  Its  ruined  temples,  monas- 
teries, monuments,  and  idols  are  scattered  everywhere, 
while  some  of  these  have  been  perpetuated  and 
adopted  by  those  later  phases  of  Hinduism  which  its 
own  toleration  helped  to  bring  into  existence. 

At  all  events  it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  the  pass- 
ing away  of  the  Buddhistic  system  in  India  was  on  the 
whole  like  the  peaceful  passing  away  of  a  moribund 
man  surrounded  by  his  relatives,  and  was  at  least  un- 
attended with  any  agonizing  pangs  \ 

^  No  doubt  there  are  places  in  the  South  of  India  where  there  is 
evidence  of  some  violent  persecution.  I  may  instance  among  the 
places  I  visited  Tanjore  and  Madura.  When  I  concluded  the  reading 
of  a  paper  on  this  subject  at  the  meeting  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society 
on  February  15,  1886,  the  then  President,  Colonel  Yule,  justly 
remarked  that  the  members  of  two  religious  communions  who  hold 
very  similar  doctrines,  often  on  that  account  hate  and  oppose  each 
other  all  the  more ;  but  my  point  was  that  the  ultra-tolerance 
which  was  of  the  very  essence  of  both  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism 
must  have  prevented  actual  persecution,  except  under  special  cir- 
cumstances. Brahmanism  was  much  more  likely  to  have  adopted 
Buddhism  as  part  of  its  system,  than  to  have  persecuted  and  expelled 
it.  In  point  of  fact,  the  Brahmans,  as  is  well  known,  are  ready  to 
regard  any  great  teacher  as  one  of  Vishnu's  incarnations,  and  in  this 
way  are  even  willing  to  pay  homage  to  the  Head  of  Christianity., 


LECTURE  YIU. 

Else  of  Theistic  and  Polytheistic  B%idcT1iism. 

Ix  the  pieceding  Lecture  we  have  endeavoured  to 
show  generally  how  Buddhism  was  evolved  out  of 
Brahmanism,  how  it  flourished  side  by  side  with  Brah- 
manism,  and  how  after  a  chequered  career  and  protracted 
senility  in  the  land  of  its  birth — lasting  for  at  least 
fifteen  centuries^ — it  ultimately  merged  its  individu- 
ality in  Vaishnavism  and  Saivism,  or,  in  other  words, 
disappeared  and  became  lost  in  a  composite  system 
called  Hinduism. 

We  have  now  to  trace  more  closely  the  gradual 
sliding  of  a  simple  agnostic  and  atheistic  creed,  into 
a  variety  of  theistic  and  polytheistic  conceptions. 

We  have  already  seen  how  the  expansion  of  the  Hina- 
yana  into  the  Maha-yana  became  an  inevitable  result  of 
the  Buddha's  own  teaching — in  other  words,  how  a  re- 
bound from  atheism  to  theism  was  as  unavoidable  as  the 
return  swing  of  a  heavy  pendulum.  We  need  only  repeat 
here  that  it  could  not  have  been  otherwise,  when  a 
teacher,  who  never  claimed  to  be  more  than  a  man, 
attempted  to  indoctrinate   his   human  followers  with 


*  Buddhism  began  to  lose  ground  in  India  about  the  fourth  or  fifth 
century  after  Christ,  but  it  maintained  a  chequered  career  for  several 
succeeding  centuries  even  after  Hioucn  Thsang's  time.     See  p.  i6i. 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE   MAHA-YANA    SYSTEM.      1 73 

principles  opposed  to  the  inextinguishable  instincts  and 
eternal  intuitions  of  humanity. 

In  fact  the  teachers  of  the  Maha-yana  school  were  not 
slow  to  perceive  that,  if  Buddliism  was  to  gain  any  hold 
over  the  masses,  it  was  essential  that  it  should  adapt 
itself  to  their  human  needs.  It  became  imperatively 
necessary,  as  a  simple  preservative  measure,  to  convert 
a  cold  philosophical  creed,  based  on  an  ultra-pessim- 
istic theory  of  existence,  into  some  sort  of  belief  in 
the  value  of  human  life  as  worth  living.  And  if  life 
was  not  to  be  an  invariable  current  of  misery  it  followed 
that  there  must  also  be  some  sort  of  faith  in  a  super- 
intending God  controlling  that  life,  and  interesting 
Himself  in  Man's  welfare. 

Unfortunately,  having  once  advanced  beyond  definite 
limits,  the  more  progressive  teachers  found  it  impossible 
to  draw  the  line  at  any  given  point. 

No  doubt  the  theistic  movement  began  by  simple 
saint-worship — that  is,  by  veneration  for  the  extinct 
Buddha  as  for  a  perfect  saint.  This  was  accompanied 
by  homage  offered  to  his  relics  and  to  various  memorials 
of  his  person. 

Then  mere  veneration  and  homage  led  to  actual 
worship,  and  the  Buddha,  who  from  first  to  last  made 
his  own  perfect  humanity  an  essential  principle  of  his 
teaching,  became  elevated  to  a  pinnacle  far  above 
humanity  and  converted  into  a  veritable  god. 

Next,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  a  further  development  of 
the  theistic  movement  became  inevitable. 

For  indeed  it  was  only  natural  that  in  process  of  time 
some  of  the  more  eminent  of  the  Buddha's  followers 


I  74       EISE  OF  THEISTIC  AND  POLYTHEISTIC  BUDDHISM. 

should  become  almost  equally  revered  with  himself.  It 
was  not,  however,  till  some  time  after  their  death  that 
they  received  any  homage  resembling  that  accorded  to 
their  Master. 

It  was  then  that,  instead  of  being  thought  of  as 
extinct,  according  to  the  orthodox  Buddhist  doctrine, 
they  were  continually  elevated  in  the  imagination  of 
their  admirers  to  heavenly  regions  of  beatitude. 

Of  course  this  constant  increase  of  saint-worship 
tended  to  land  men  by  degrees  in  a  mass  of  theistic  and 
l^olytheistic  conceptions. 

And  polytheism  could  not  prevail  in  Eastern  coun- 
tries without  its  usual  reverse  side — polydemonism ;  and 
polydemonism  could  not  prevail  without  its  usual 
adjuncts  of  mysticism  and  magic.  And  all  of  these 
again  entailed  idolatry,  relic-worship,  fetish-worship,  and 
various  other  gross  superstitions. 

Such  was  the  natural  termination  of  the  process  of 
degeneration.     Let  us  now  trace  it  more  in  detail. 

And  in  the  first  place  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
Gautama  himself  seems  to  have  foreseen  this  result. 

He  seems  to  have  been  quite  aware  of  the  ineradic- 
able tendency  inherent  in  the  nature  of  human  beings, 
impelling  them  to  elevate  their  saints  and  heroes  to 
the  position  of  gods.  He  therefore  took  pains  to  make 
his  beloved  disciple  and  cousin  Ananda  understand 
that  the  truth  embodied  in  the  Dharma  or  Law  which 
he  had  taught,  was  all  that  ought  to  take  his  place 
and  represent  him  when  he  was  gone. 

Accordingly  we  learn  from  ancient  inscrI])tions  that 
for  many  years  afterwards  the  only  allowable  object  of 


GEOUPING   IN    TRIADS.  I  75 

veneration  among  primitive  Buddhists  was  the  Law — 
that  is,  the  precepts,  rules,  and  ordinances  propounded 
bj  Gautama  himself — many  of  which  may  have  been 
committed  to  writing  in  early  times,  though  oral  trans- 
mission was  at  first  the  usual  rule,  as  it  was  among 
Brahmans. 

In  time,  however,  the  interconnexion  between  Brah- 
manism  and  Buddhism,  and  the  tendency  to  group 
sacred  objects  in  triads  \  which  showed  itself  very  early 
in  Hindu  religious  thought  and  mythology,  seems  to 
have  led  to  the  idea  of  a  corresponding  triple  arrange- 
ment of  venerated  objects  among  Buddhists.  Hence 
three  precious  things — sometimes  called  the  three  jewels 
(tri-raina),  or  the  'three  Holies^' — came  first  to  be  held 
in  honour  and  then  actually  worshipped  :  a  kind  of 
personality  being  accorded  to  all  three,  very  similar  to 
that  supposed  to  belong  to  the  three  chief  gods  of  the 
Hindu  Pantheon. 

This  triad  of  personalities  consisted  of  (i)  the 
Buddha  himself,  that  is  to  say,  Gautama  Buddha,  or 
the  Buddha  of  the  present  age  of  the  world ;  (2)  his 
Dharma  or  Law,  that  is,  the  word  and  doctrine  of  the 
Buddha  personified,  or  so  to  speak  incarnated  and 
manifested  in  a  visible  form  after  his  Pari-nirvana ;  and 
(3)  his  Saiigha  or  Order  of  monks,  also  in  a  manner 

^  First,  the  Vedic  triad  of  gods,  Agni,  '  Fire,'  ludra,  '  wielder  of  the 
thuuderlDolt,'  and  Surya,  '  the  Sun,'  followed  by  the  Tri-murti  or 
Brahma,  Siva,  and  Vishnu.  Then  the  three  Gunas  or  constituents 
of  the  material  Universe,  Sattva,  Rajas,  and  Tamas,  and  lastly  the  triple 
name  of  Brahma,  Sac-cid-ananda. 

^  Sarat  Chandra  Das,  in  his  interesting  Tibetan  journal,  describes 
them  as  the  '  three  Holies.' 


I  76       RISE  OF  THEISTIC  AND  POLYTHEISTIC  BUDDHISM. 

personified — that  is,  embodied  in  a  kind  of  ideal  im- 
personation or  collective  unity  of  his  true  disciples. 

This  last  word,  Saiigha,  which  means  in  Sanskrit 
'  a  collection  '  or  *  assemblage/  is  sometimes,  as  we  have 
already  seen  (p.  85),  very  unsuitably  rendered  by  the 
expression  '  Buddhist  Church.'  It  simply  denotes  '  the 
collective  body  of  Buddhist  monks  ; '  that  is  to  say,  the 
entire  monastic  fraternity,  comprising  in  its  widest  sense 
the  whole  assemblage  of  monks,  Arhats,  Pratyeka-Bud- 
dhas,  Bodhi-sattvas,  perfected  Baddhas  and  not  yet 
perfected  saints  of  all  classes,  whether  on  the  earth  or  in 
any  other  division  of  the  Universe  ;  but  not  including 
— be  it  carefully  borne  in  mind — the  still  vaster  com- 
munity of  living  persons  constituting  the  whole  body 
of  the  Buddhist  laity. 

These  three,  then, — the  Buddha,  his  Law,  and  his 
Order  of  Monks, — passed  into  the  first  three  divine 
personifications  of  early  theistic  Buddhism,  commonly 
known  as  the  first  Buddhist  Triad. 

Hence  we  find  that  the  Khuddaka-piltha  or  'lesser 
readings^'  of  the  fifteen  divisions  of  the  Khuddaka- 
nikaya  (p.  63)  begins  thus  : — 

'I  put  my  trust  in  the  Buddha,  in  the  Law,  in  the 
Order'  (repeated  three  times). 

'Ye  beings  (Bhutani)  here  assembled  of  earth  and 
air,  let  us  bow,  let  us  bow  before  the  Buddha,  revered 
by  gods  and  men.     May  there  be  prosperity ! 

'Ye  beings  of  earth  and  air,  let  us  bow  before  the 
Law. 


^  Edited  by  Childera.  See  Journal  K.  A.  S.,  N.  S.  iv.  318,  and  Kern's 
Buddliismus,  ii.  156. 


TRIAD    OF  BUDDHA,  THE  LAW,  AND  THE  ORDEE.    I  77 

'Ye  beings  of  earth  and  air,  let  us  bow  before  the 
Order  of  Monks.' 

When  Fa-hien  was  on  his  return  home  and  in  great 
peril  at  sea,  he  committed  his  life  to  the  protection  of 
the  Sangha,  saying : — '  I  have  travelled  far  in  search  of 
tlie  Law,  let  me,  by  your  dread  and  supernatural  power, 
return  from  my  wanderings  and  reach  my  resting-place.' 

And  again,  on  ending  his  travels,  he  gratefully  ac- 
knowledged that  he  had  been  guarded  in  his  perils  by 
the  dread  power  of  the  '  three  honoured  ones '  or 
'  three  precious  ones  '  or  '  three  Holies ' — thus  acknow- 
ledging the  personality  of  the  Law  as  well  as  of  the 
Buddha  himself  and  of  the  Sangha  or  collective  body 
of  Monks  ^ 

But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  did  not 
necessarily  imply  any  worship  of  images.  It  is  certain 
that  for  a  long  time  even  Buddha  himself  was  not  re- 
presented visibly.  This  is  proved  by  the  sculptures 
on  the  Bharhut  Stupa.  Even  in  the  present  day  the 
simple  expression  of  trust  in  the  three  revered  ones 
constitutes  the  only  formula  of  worship  current  in 
Ceylon,  It  is  true  that  images  of  the  Buddha  are 
now  common  in  that  country,  and  while  travelling  there 
I  saw  numbers  of  jiersons  offering  homage  and  flowers 
to  these  images.  But  no  prayer  was  addressed  to 
them,  and  I  noticed  no  visible  representations  of  the 
personified  Law  or  Sangha  ^. 

^  Legge's  Fa-hien,  pp.  11 2- 116. 

^  Capt.  Temple  states  that  the  Sangha  is  personified  in  Sikkim 
under  the  form  of  a  man  holding  a  lotus  in  his  left  hand,  the  right 
hand  being  on  the  right  knee. 

N 


I  yS     RISE  OF  THEISTIC  AND  POLYTHEISTIC  BUDDHISM. 

Nor,  when  I  was  at  the  Buddhist  monastery  near 
Darjiling,  did  I  see  any  image  of  the  Law  side  by  side 
witli  that  of  Gautama,  though  every  book  examined  by 
me  in  the  temple-library  began  with  the  words  : — Namo 
BiiddhiTya,  'reverence  to  the  Buddha;'  namo  Dharmaya, 
'reverence  to  the  Law;'  namo  Sanghaya,  'reverence  to 
the  Order.'  The  only  visible  symbol  of  the  three  so- 
called  'Holies'  was  a  long  staff  with  three  prongs, 
like  the  Indian  Tri-sula. 

It  seems  clear,  therefore,  that  while,  in  process  of 
time,  images  of  Gautama  Buddha  were  multiplied  every- 
where— and,  as  we  shall  see,  in  various  attitudes  and 
shapes — images  of  the  personified  Law  and  Saiigha 
were  never  common,  and  indeed  rarely  found,  except 
among  Northern  Buddhists.  Those  images  of  the  Law 
which  I  have  examined  are  in  the  form  of  a  man 
with  four  arms  and  hands,  two  of  which  are  folded  in 
worship,  while  one  holds  a  book  (or  sometimes  a  lotus) 
and  the  other  a  rosary  ^ 

Sometimes,  however,  the  representation  of  a  book 
alone  is  held  to  be  a  sufficient  symbol  of  the  Law. 

The  Saiigha,  on  the  other  hand,  is  generally  sym- 
bohzed  by  the  image  of  a  man  with  two  arms  and 
hands,  one  of  which,  as  in  the  images  of  Buddha,  rests 
on  the  knees  and  the  other  holds  a  lotus. 

And  it  may  be  observed  here  that  of  the  three 
images  of  the  Buddha,  the  Law,  and  the  Order,  some- 

^  According  to  Capt.  Temple,  Dharma,  '  the  law,'  is  personified  in 
Sikkim  as  a  white  woman  with  four  arms,  two  raised  in  prayer,  the 
third  holding  a  garland  (or  rosary),  the  fourth  a  lotus. 


BUDDHIST   TEIAD    NO    TRINITY.  I  79 

times  one  occupies  the  central  position  and  sometimes 
the  other.  This  circumstance  has  led  scholars  to  speak 
of  what  it  is  the  fashion  to  term  a  Buddhist  trinity  ; 
but  in  real  fact  neither  Buddhism  nor  Brahmanism  has 
any  trinity  in  the  true  meaning  of  the  term,  for  al- 
though Buddhists  claim  a  kind  of  tri-unity  for  their 
triad,  and  say  that  the  first  contains  the  second,  and 
that  the  third  proceeds  from  the  first  two  and  contains 
them,  yet  the  first  is  clearly  never  regarded  as  either 
the  Father  or  Creator  of  the  world,  in  the  Christian  sense. 

It  appears,  in  fact,  that  the  earliest  Buddhist  worship 
was  exactly  what  might  have  been  expected  to  follow 
on  the  death  of  a  religious  Reformer  and  author  of 
a  new  system.  It  was  merely  the  natural  expression 
of  deep  reverence  for  the  founder  of  Buddhism,  his 
doctrine,  and  the  collective  body  of  his  disciples. 

So  simple  a  form  of  worsliip,  however,  did  not  long 
satisfy  the  devotional  aspirations  of  the  Buddha's 
followers,  even  in  the  sacred  land  of  pure  Buddhism. 

The  mere  ofiering  of  homage,  either  to  a  system  of 
Law,  or  to  a  community  of  living  monks  or  to  departed 
human  saints — even  though  their  memory  was  kept 
alive  by  visible  representations,  and  stimulated  by 
meditation  and  repetition  of  prayer-formularies — had 
in  it  nothing  calculated  to  support  or  comfort  men  in 
seasons  of  sickness,  bereavement,  or  calamity.  This 
kind  of  simple  Buddhism  might  have  satisfied  the 
needs  of  men  in  times  of  peace  and  prosperity.  Under 
other  conditions  it  broke  down.  It  could  offer  no 
shelter  and  give  no  help  amid  the  storms  and  tempests 
of  life.     Hence  the  development  of  the  later  phases  of 

N  2 


1  So     RISE  OF  TIIEISTIC  AND  POLYTHEISTIC  BUDDHISM. 

the  Maha-yana  system,  the  chief  feature  of  which  was 
a  marked  change  in  the  meaning  attached  to  the  term 
*  Bodhi-sattva.* 

This  change  will  be  better  understood  if  we  go  back 
to  what  has  already  been  mentioned  (at  jd.  98).  We 
have  before  explained  that,  according  to  the  original 
theory  of  Buddhism,  a  Bodhi-sattva  is  one  who  has 
knowledge  (derived  from  self-enlightening  intellect)  for 
his  essence ;  that  is,  he  is  a  being  who  through  all  his 
bodily  existences  is  destined  in  some  final  existence  to 
become  a  Buddha,  or  self-enlightened  man.  Until  his 
final  birth,  however,  a  Bodhi-sattva  is  a  being  in  whom 
true  knowledge  is  rather  latent  and  undeveloped  than 
perfected.  Gautama  had  been  a  Bodhi-sattva  of  this 
character  (see  p.  134),  the  merit  of  whose  actions 
(Karma)  in  each  of  his  countless  previous  existences 
(see  p.  109)  had  been  transmitted  to  succeeding  cor- 
poreal forms,  till  in  the  state  immediately  preceding 
his  last  birth  on  earth  he  existed  as  a  Bodhi-sattva 
in  the  Tushita  heaven  (see  p.  120).  There  he  con- 
tinued until  the  time  came  for  him  to  be  born  on  earth 
as  the  Buddha  of  the  present  age,  when  he  entered 
the  right  side  of  his  mother  in  the  form  of  a  white 
elephant  (p.  23)  ^ 


^  One  legend  says  : — '  Thus,  O  monks,  Buddha  was  born,  and  the 
right  side  of  his  mother  was  not  pierced,  was  not  wounded.  It  re- 
mained as  before.'  Foucaux,  p.  97.  Hiouen  Thsang  relates  that  there 
is  a  Viliara  at  Kapila-vastu  indicating  the  spot  '  where  the  Bodhi- 
sattva  descended  sjnritually  into  the  womb  of  his  mother,'  and  that 
there  is  a  representation  of  this  scene  drawn  in  the  Vihara.  I  have 
myself  seen  many  representations  of  it  in  Buddhitt  sculptures. 


WORSHIP    OF    MA.ITEEYA.  l8l 

And  it  may  be  repeated  here  tliat  tlie  white  elephant, 
as  something  rare  and  beautiful  of  its  kind,  was  simply 
symbolical  of  the  perfect  Arhatship  which  he  was 
destined  to  achieve  in  the  ensuino;  birth. 

Born,  then,  at  last  as  the  child  Gautama,  son  of 
Suddhodana,  and  purified  by  a  long  observance  of  the  six 
transcendent  virtues  (p,  128),  he  ultimately  attained  to 
perfect  knowledge  and  Arhatship  under  the  Bodhi-tree, 
and  in  so  attaining  passed  from  the  condition  of  a  Bodhi- 
sattva  to  that  of  the  highest  of  all  Arhats — a  supreme 
Buddha.  Then,  after  about  forty-five  years  of  dili- 
gent discharge  of  his  self-imposed  task  as  a  teacher  of 
the  right  way  of  salvation,  he  ultimately  passed  away 
in  Pari-nirvana,  or  absolute  non-existence. 

It  is  important,  however,  to  remember,  that  at  the 
moment  of  his  attaining  Buddhahood  he  had  trans- 
ferred the  Bodhi-sattvaship  to  Maitreya,  '  the  loving 
and  compassionate  one,'  who  became  the  Buddha-elect, 
dwelling  and  presiding  as  his  predecessor  had  done  in 
the  heaven  of  contented  beings  (Tushita;  see  p.  120). 
There  he  watches  over  and  promotes  the  interests  of 
the  Buddhist  faith,  while  awaiting  the  time  when  he 
is  to  appear  on  earth  as  Maitreya,  or  the  fifth  Buddha 
of  the  present  age.  His  advent  will  not  take  place  till 
the  lapse  of  five  thousand  years  after  the  Nirvana  of 
Gautama,  when  the  world  will  have  become  so  corrupt 
that  the  Buddhist  Law  will  be  no  more  obeyed,  nor 
even  remembered. 

No  wonder  then  that  this  Maitreya — whose  very 
name  implies  love  and  tenderness  towards  mankind, 
and   who  was  destined   to    become,   like  Gautama,  a 


I  82     RISE  OF  THEISTIC  AND  POLYTHEISTIC  BUDDHISM. 

Saviour  of  the  world  by  teaching  its  inhabitants  how  to 
save  themselves — became  a  favourite  object  of  personal 
worship  after  Gautama  Buddha's  death.  Even  when 
the  worshij)  of  other  Bodhi-sattvas  was  introduced, 
Maitreya  retained  the  distinction  of  being  the  only 
Bodhi-sattva  worshipped  by  all  Buddhist  countries, 
whether  in  the  South  or  in  the  North.  Not  that 
Gautama's  memory  was  neglected.  He  was,  of  course, 
held  to  be  superior  to  Maitreya,  who  was  still  a  mere 
Bodhi-sattva  or  Buddha-designate.  But  the  feeling 
towards  Gautama  Buddha,  after  his  Nirvana  and  death, 
became  different,  and  the  object  of  bringing  flowers 
and  offerings  to  his  shrines  was  simply  to  honour  the 
memory  of  a  departed,  not  an  existing  saint.  It  was 
a  mere  mechanical  act,  fraught  with  beneficial  con- 
sequences, but  not  supplying  any  real  religious  need. 
On  the  other  hand  actual  prayers  were  addressed  to 
Maitreya,  as  to  a  living  merciful  being,  whose  favour  it 
was  all-important  to  secure,  and  whose  heaven  was 
believed  to  be  a  region  of  perfect  love  and  contentment, 
to  which  all  his  worshippers  were  admitted. 

In  Hiouen  Thsang's  Travels  a  heavenly  Eislii  is 
represented  as  saying  : — '  No  words  can  describe  the 
personal  beauty  of  Maitreya.  He  declares  a  law  not 
different  from  ours.  His  exquisite  voice  is  soft  and 
pure.  Those  who  hear  it  can  never  tire  ;  those  who 
listen  are  never  satiated  \' 

In  fact,  the  aspirations  of  few  pious  Buddhists  in 
early  times  ever  led  them  to  soar    higher   than   the 

^  Beal's  Records,  i.  228. 


maitreya's  heaven  longed  foe.  183 

happiness  of  living  with  Maitreya  and  listening  to  his 
voice  in  his  own  Tushita  heaven. 

It  is  true  that  afterwards  when  the  worship  of  the 
Dhyani-Buddha  Amitabha  came  into  vogue  in  Nor- 
thern countries  this  Buddha's  heaven,  called  SukhavatI, 
fabled  to  be  somewhere  in  the  Western  sky,  seems  to 
have  taken  the  place  of  the  heaven  of  Maitreya.  But 
this  belongs  to  a  later  phase  of  Buddhism,  to  be  ex- 
plained when  we  speak  of  the  Dhyani-Buddhas  (p.  203). 

It  was  for  Maitreya's  Tushita  heaven  that  Hioueu 
Thsang,  and  other  devout  men  of  his  day,  prayed  on 
their  death-beds,  and  the  one  Chinese  inscription  found 
at  Buddha-Gaya  is  full  of  expressions  indicative  of  the 
same  longing  ^ 

If  then,  we  are  able  to  enter  into  the  feelings  of 
Buddhists  everywhere  in  depending  on  the  living, 
loving,  and  energizing  Maitreya,  rather  than  on  the 
extinct  Buddha  who  existed  only  in  their  memories,  we 
shaU.  find  it  less  difficult  to  understand  how  it  came  to 
pass  that  the  idea  of,  so  to  speak,  canonizing  every  great 
saint  or  popular  head  of  a  monastic  community,  and 
elevating  him  at  death  to  the  position  of  a  Bodhi- 
sattva  like  Maitreya,  living  in  permanent  regions  of 
bliss,  and  able  to  help  his  votaries  to  the  same  position, 
came  into  vogue. 

It  may  make  the  course  of  development  of  Theistic 
Buddhism  clearer  if  we  here  revert  to  the  early 
constitution  of  the  Buddhist  monastic  brotherhood,  and 
endeavour  to  show  how  the  homage  paid  to  eminent 

^  Beal's  Records,  i.  134,  note. 


I  84     EISE  OF  THEISTIC  AND  POLYTHEISTIC  BUDDHISM. 

and  saint-like  men  led,  first  to  the  multiplication  of 
Bodhi-sattvas,  and  then  to  polytheism  and  every  form 
of  polytheistic  superstition. 

A  full  explanation  of  the  early  monastic  system  is 
given  in  the  learned  work  of  Koeppen  \  It  is  clear 
that  as  long  as  Gautama  was  alive  he  was  the  sole 
Head  of  the  brotherhood  of  monks.  After  his  death 
the  Headship  (as  in  the  Christian  brotherhood  after  the 
death  of  Christ)  was  not  assigned  to  any  one  leader. 
The  Buddha  himself  forbade  this.  The  term  Sahgha 
at  that  time  merely  denoted  a  republican  fraternity  of 
monks,  bound  by  no  irrevocable  vows  and  subject  to  no 
hierarchical  Superior,  but  all  intent  on  following  the 
example,  and  propagating  the  doctrines  of  their  departed 
leader.  Soon,  however,  the  formation  of  separate  centres 
of  union  and  teaching  became  inevitable,  and  the  term 
Sarigha  was  then  applied  to  each  separate  society,  and 
sometimes  even  to  a  separate  Conclave  of  each  society, 
as  well  as  to  the  whole  body.  It  seems  at  least 
certain  that  each  monastic  association  had  the  right  to 
admit  monks,  to  hear  confession,  and  to  excommunicate. 
Naturally,  too,  in  course  of  time  it  became  necessary 
for  each  society  to  have  some  sort  of  governing  body 
and  choose  a  kind  of  president,  and  this  presiding 
officer  was  originally  the  senior  monk,  and  accordingly 
had  the  simple  title  of  Sthavira  (Thera),  '  Elder.'     This 

'  This  work, '  Die  Religion  des  Buddha,'  by  Carl  Friederich  Koeppen, 
has  been  long  out  of  print,  and  has  unfortunately  never  been  translated 
into  English.  The  German  is  often  difficult,  but  I  have  endeavoured 
to  give  a  correct  idea  of  Koeppen's  statements  in  the  instances  in 
which  I  have  made  use  of  them.     It  is  now  somewhat  out  of  date. 


HEADSHIP    OF   THE    BUDDHIST   FRATERNITIES.      1 85 

title  appears  to  have  been  introduced  immediately  after 
Gautama's  death. 

It  is  believed  that  ever  since  the  time  of  the  great 
Asoka,  Sthaviras  or  Elders  who  became  actual  super- 
intendents of  monasteries,  exercised  administrative 
powers,  like  those  of  Abbots ;  each  over  his  own  monastic 
community.  This  was  the  first  kind  of  Headship  recog- 
nized.    It  was  simply  a  superiority  of  age. 

As  to  any  still  higher  form  of  authority  correspond- 
ing to  that  of  Pope,  Archbishop,  or  Bishop,  and  extend- 
ing over  several  monasteries,  this  did  not  belong  to 
early  Buddhism  or  to  its  earliest  developments.  Lists 
of  uninterrupted  series  of  pretended  Buddhist  Hier- 
archs  exist,  but  are  mere  fanciful  fabrications.  Never- 
theless, it  is  certainly  a  historical  fact  that  along  with 
the  superiority  of  mere  age,  seniority,  and  experience, 
there  rapidly  grew  up  pari  passu  a  superiority  of  know- 
ledge, learning,  and  sanctity,  which  were  generally, 
though  not  invariably,  combined  in  the  person  of  the 
presiding  Elder. 

Any  one,  in  fact,  who  was  distinguished  for  the 
practice  of  the  highest  degree  of  meditation,  for  com- 
plete acquaintance  with  the  Law,  for  special  purity  of 
conduct,  and  perfect  fulfilment  of  the  precepts,  was 
naturally  elevated  above  the  class  of  ordinary  Bhikshus. 
Such  a  monk  was  from  the  earliest  times  dignified  by 
the  title  Arhat,  '  very  reverend,'  i.  e.  more  worthy  of 
honour  than  the  generality.  Arhat,  in  short,  was  from 
the  first  a  name  for  the  higher  grade  of  saint-like 
Bhikshu.  Such  a  man,  too,  before  long,  was  raised  to 
a  still  higher  level  in  the  estimation  of  his  fellow-monks. 


I  86     RISE  OF  THETSTIC  AND  POLYTHEISTIC  BUDDHISM. 

He  was  believed  to  have  delivered  himself  from  all  the 
consequences  of  acts,  whether  bad  or  good — from  all  the 
fetters  (see  p.  127)  of  life,  and  therefore  from  all  re-birth. 
He  was  even  elevated  to  a  still  loftier  pinnacle.  He 
was  believed  by  his  superstitious  admirers  to  possess 
unlimited  dominion  over  nature,  space,  time,  and  matter ; 
to  be  all-seeing,  all-powerful,  and  capable  of  working 
every  kind  of  miracle.  Then,  of  course,  at  death  he 
passed  away  ,m  Pari-nirvana  and  was,  so  to  speak, 
canonized.  Be  it  noted,  however,  that  such  canoniza- 
tion was  never  accorded  to  an  Arhat  till  after  his  de- 
parture from  the  world. 

Probably  the  immediate  disciples  of  Gautama  Bud- 
dha— that  is,  his  so-called  '  great  pupils '  (see  p.  47), 
were  all  considered  perfect  Arhats.  And  these  perfect 
Arhats  were  probably  the  only  saints  of  the  earliest 
period  of  Buddhism.  Yet  there  was  one  who  surpassed 
them  all  by  an  immeasurable  interval,  and  tliat  one  was 
Gautama  Buddha  himself.  It  was  the  distino-uishinoj 
mark  of  a  supreme  Buddha  that  he  was  infinitely 
greater  than  all  other  Arhats,  because  he  had  not  only 
gained  perfect  knowledge  himself/but  had  become  the 
Saviour  of  the  whole  world  by  imparting  to  men  the 
knowledge  of  how  they  were  to  save  themselves. 

It  seems,  therefore,  only  natural  that  the  followers  of 
Buddha,  and  probably  the  Buddha  liimself,  before  his 
decease,  should  have  thought  it  desirable  to  establish 
a  more  systematic  gradation  of  saintship  by  filling  up 
the  immense  gap  between  ordinary  Arhats  and  the 
supreme  Buddha.  It  was  this  that  led  to  the  idea 
of  Pratyeka-Buddhas,  that   is,  self-dependent   solitary 


THE    BODHI-SATTVA,    MAITREYA.  1 87 

Buddhas^  (see  p.  134),  as  well  as  to  the  notion  of  a  still 
higher  being  called  a  Bodhi-sattva,  who,  as  the  Buddha- 
designate  and  future  successor  of  Gautama,  occupied  a 
still  more  exalted  intermediate  position  than  a  Pratjeka- 
Buddha. 

Of  course  it  became  difficult  to  fix  on  any  living 
man,  or  any  recently  deceased  saint  worthy  of  the 
highest  stage  of  Bodhi,  to  which  a  being  about  to 
become  a  perfect  Buddha  was  supposed  i    attain. 

The  first  to  be  so  elevated  (though  apparently  not  by 
Gautama  himself)  was,  as  frequently  mentioned  before, 
the  mythical  individual  Maitreya.  He  was,  we  repeat, 
for  a  long  time  the  only  Bodhi-sattva  recognized  by 
all  Buddhists  alike,  whether  adherents  of  the  Hiua-yana 
or  Maha-yana.  But  he  was  not  a  historical  personage, 
like  Gautama  or  his  immediate  disciples.  He  was  a 
mere  mythological  personification  of  that  spirit  of  love 
— of  that  kindly  and  friendly  disposition  towards  all 
living  beings  by  force  of  which  Buddhism  hoped  one 
day  to  conquer  the  world,  and  win  it  over  to  itself. 

And  in  conformity  with  his  mythical  character,  and 
probably  to  prevent  the  rivalry  of  pretenders  among 
future  ambitious  heads  of  monasteries,  he  was  not  to 
appear  for  five  thousand  years,  till  the  teaching  of 
Gautama  had  lost  its  power. 

Indeed,  it  was  only  to  be  expected  that  this  rank 
should  at  first  have  been  accorded  to  one  person  alone 

^  It  is  obvious  to  remark  that  in  the  same  way  those  who  are 
intellectually  self-dependent  and  self-raised  among  ourselves  generally 
rise  to  a  higher  level  of  popular  esteem  than  those  taught  by  other 
men. 


I  88     RISE  OF  TIIEISTIC  AND  POLYTHEISTIC  BUDDHISM. 

— just  as  in  worldly  affairs  tliere  could  be  only  one 
Heir-apparent  to  the  throne. 

Such  was  the  more  simple  doctrine  of  early  Buddhism 
in  regard  to  the  relative  position  of  the  members  of  the 
Buddhist  community. 

How  then  did  the  teachers  of  the  Maha-yana  proceed 
to  amplify  this  doctrine  1 

They  taught  that  there  were  two  methods  of  salvation 
or,  so  to  speak,  two  ways  or  two  vehicles — the  Great  and 
the  Little  (Maha-yana  and  Hina-yana) — and  indeed  two 
Bodhis  or  forms  of  true  knowledge  which  these  vehicles 
had  to  convey  \  The  former  was  for  ordinary  persons, 
the  latter  for  beings  of  larger  talents  and  higher  spiritual 
powers.  The  '  Little  Way '  was  the  simple  doctrine, 
which  had  many  Arhats  but  only  one  Bodhi-sattva ; 
the  '  Great  Way,'  on  the  other  hand,  was  the  wider  and 
broader,  which  had  many  Bodhi-sattvas  as  well  as  many 
Arhats.  He  who  satisfied  the  usual  requirements  of 
Saintship  received  the  rank  of  an  Arhat  in  both  systems. 
But  in  the  wider  system  every  one  who  aimed  at  un- 
usual sanctity  on  the  one  hand,  and  knowledge  (Bodhi) 
on  the  other,  might  walk  on  the  Great  road  leading  to 
Bodhi-sattvaship,  and  leceive  the  title  Bodhi-sattva. 

We  have  seen  {p.  136)  that  the  Hina-yana,  or  'Little 
system,'  taught  that  there  were  only  twenty-four 
Buddhas  who  had  preceded  Gautama.  Three  of  these 
(viz.  Kraku-cchanda,  Kanaka-muni,  and  Kasyapa),  with 
Gautama  as  a  fourth,  had  appeared  in  the  present  age, 
and  only  one  Bodhi-sattva  (Maitreya)  was  to  come. 

^  There  was  also  a  '  middle  way,'  see  p.  159. 


MULTIPLICATION    OF   BODHI-SATTVAS.  1 89 

But  according  to  the  '  Great  System/  it  was  a  mis- 
take to  limit  the  acquisition  of  the  highest  Saintship 
in  this  manner.  It  maintained  that  there  would  be 
numberless  supreme  Buddhas  (and,  in  addition  to  them, 
self-taught,  solitary  Buddhas,  called  Pratjeka-Buddhas), 
as  well  as  numberless  Bodhi-sattvas,  even  In  the  present 
age  of  the  world.  In  other  words,  it  propounded  the 
doctrine  that  the  practice  of  the  six  (or  ten)  transcendent 
virtues  (p.  128),  and  especially  the  acquisition  of  tran- 
scendent wisdom  (prajiia  paramita),  might  qualify  many 
saints  for  the  attainment  of  Bodhi-sattvaship  and 
Buddhaship.  According  to  one  theor}^,  there  were  to 
be  at  least  a  thousand  Bodhi-sattvas,  followed  by  a 
thousand  Buddhas,  while,  according  to  others,  Buddhas 
and  Bodhi-sattvas  were  to  be  reckoned  by  myriads. 

But  this  theory  of  numberless  Bodhi-sattvas  involved 
an  entirely  new  view  of  their  nature  and  of  the  meaning 
of  the  term. 

In  fact,  the  Bodhi-sattvas  of  the  more  developed 
Maha-yana  school  were  not  Bodhi-sattvas  at  all,  accord- 
ing to  the  strict  sense  of  the  term.  It  is  true  they 
resembled  the  genuine  Bodhi-sattva  in  having  gone 
through  a  long  series  of  existences  leading  them  at  last 
to  perfect  saintship  and  to  a  heaven  of  their  own,  but 
they  were  under  no  obligation  to  give  up  their 
Bodhi-sattvashIp,  quit  their  celestial  abodes,  or  descend 
ultimately  as  human  Buddhas  upon  earth. 

Furthermore,  they  never  appeared  to  aim  at  Parl-nlr- 
vana  like  their  earthly  counterparts.  Their  most  obvious 
raison  d'etre  seems  to  have  been  to  supply  the  need  of 
personal  objects  of  worship,  and  though  in  Tibet  they 


1 90     RISE  OF  THEISTIC  AND  POLYTHEISTIC  BUDDHISM. 

were  believed  to  have  their  own  secondary  corporeal 
emanations — sometimes  called  their  '  incarnations/  but 
more  properly  described  as  descents  (avatara)  of  portions 
of  their  essence  in  a  constant  succession  of  human  saints, 
— they  never  really  left  their  own  permanent  stations  in 
the  heavenly  regions.  Indeed,  it  is  probable  that  the  chief 
cause  of  their  popularity,  as  personal  objects  of  adora- 
tion, was  that  they  were  able  to  help  their  worshippers 
to  attain  to  the  same  permanent  and  unchangeable 
regions  of  bliss. 

It  was  thus  that  the  *  Great  Vehicle '  took  up  an 
attitude  w^hich  raised  it  not  only  above  the  simple  effort 
to  suppress  the  passions  and  desires,  but  also  above  the 
hopeless  Nihilism  of  early  Buddhism  ;  for  it  soon  became 
the  fashion  for  the  most  devoted  and  pious  of  Buddhist 
monks  to  aspire  to  the  title  and  actual  blessedness  of 
Bodhi-sattvaship  rather  than  to  the  doubtful  blessed- 
ness of  utter  personal  annihilation  involved  in  Bud- 
dhahood.  At  any  rate  the  numerous  Bodhi-sattvas 
of  the  '  Great  Method '  appear  to  have  remained  quite 
contented  with  their  condition,  so  lono;  as  it  involved 
perpetual  residence  in  the  heavens,  and  quite  willing  to 
put  off  all  desire  for  Buddhahood  and  Pari-nirvana. 

Without  doubt,  this  more  amplified  system  was  the 
result  of  a  reaction  of  Brahmanism  on  Buddhism.  It 
was  at  first  a  mere  plan  for  creating  a  close  Hierarchy 
like  that  of  the  Brahman  caste — that  is  to  say,  a  privi- 
leged class  of  men  possessed  of  higher  knowledge  and 
sanctity  and  superior  to  the  majority  of  Bhikshus  of  the 
common  stamp.  Then  it  soon  developed  into  a  scheme 
for  satisfying  the  craving  of  the  masses  for  divinities  of 


DEIFICATION   OF    GAUTAMA  S    GREAT    PUPILS.       1 9 1 

some  kind  to  whom  they  might  appeal  for  help  in  time 
of  need. 

In  all  probability  the  first  to  receive  the  title  of 
Bodhi-sattva,  next  to  Maitreya,  were  the  most  cele- 
brated Arhats  before  mentioned,  who  were  immediate 
disciples  of  Gautama,  not  however  till  death  had  sepa- 
rated them  from  their  human  frames,  when,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  they  received  a  kind  of  worship  like  that 
accorded  to  all  leaders  of  men,  just  as  the  earliest  saints, 
heroes,  and  teachers  of  Brahmanism  did. 

To  specify  all  the  Arhats  who  were  elevated  to  the 
rank  of  Bodhi-sattva  and  became  objects  of  veneration 
in  later  times  would  be  a  difficult  and  unprofitable  task. 

We  may  also  dismiss,  as  unworthy  of  note,  statements 
such  as  that  in  the  Lalita-vistara,  in  which  it  is  declared 
that  32,000  Bodhi-sattvas  joined  the  Buddha's  assembly 
in  the  Jetavana  garden.  But  we  may  notice  the  quasi- 
deification  of  a  few  historical  personages  mentioned  by 
the  two  Chinese  travellers,  whose  account  of  the  state 
of  Buddhism  in  India  from  the  fourth  to  the  seventh 
centuries  has  been  so  often  quoted. 

First  of  all  came  the  immediate  followers  and  so- 
called  'great  pupils'  (see  p.  47)  of  Gautama,  namely,  his 
two  chief  disciples,  Sari-puttra  and  Moggallana  (Maud- 
galyayana  =  Modgala-puttra)  ^  both  of  whom  are  be- 
lieved to  have  died  before  him.  Then  came  the  three 
great  leaders  at  the  first  Council :  i.  Kasyapa  (pp.  46, 
55);  2.  Gautama's  cousin  and  beloved  pupil  Ananda; 
3.  Upali  (note,  p.  56). 

^  See  pp.  47,  104.    Koeppeu  compares  them  to  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul. 


192     RISE  OF  THEISTIO  AND  POLYTHEISTIC  BUDDHISM. 

Next  to  these  perhaps  the  most  celebrated  teacher 
elevated  to  Bodhi-snttvaship  was  Nagarjuna^ — noticed 
before  as  the  alleged  founder  of  the  Maha-yana  system 
and  its  introducer  into  Tibet.  According  to  one  account 
he  was  the  son  of  a  Brahman  of  Yidarbha,  and  taught 
Buddhism  in  the  south  of  India.  He  had  a  celebrated 
disciple  named  Deva  (or  Arya-deva)  2.  Nagarjuna  was 
at  any  rate  a  great  teacher  and  developer  of  the  Maha- 
yana.  A  legend  relates  that  he  was  skilled  in  magic, 
and  was  able  thereby  to  prolong  his  own  and  a  Southern 
Indian  king's  life  indefinitely.  This  caused  great  grief 
to  the  mother  of  the  Heir-apparent,  who  instigated  her 
son  to  ask  Nagarjuna  for  his  own  head.  Nagarjuna 
complied  with  the  request,  and  cut  his  own  head  off  with 
a  blade  of  Kusa  grass,  nothing  else  having  the  power  to 
injure  him.  He  is  said  by  Hiouen  Thsang  to  have  lived 
in  Southern  Kosala  about  400  years  after  the  death  of 
Gautama,  and  is  worshipped  under  different  epithets  in 
Tibet,  China,  Mongolia,  and  even  Ceylon.  Probably  he 
lived  in  the  first  or  second  century — Beal  places  him 
between  a.d.  166  and  200.  Wassiljew  considers  him  a 
wholly  mythical  personage.  The  additions  he  made  to 
Buddhist  doctrines  were  undoubtedly  great.  When 
he  died  Stiipas  were  erected  to  his  memory,  and  in  some 
places  he  was  even  worshipped  as  Buddlia. 

*  The  Eev.  S.  Eeal  (Ind.  Antiquary  for  Dec,  1886)  shows  that 
Nagarjuna  and  Nagasena  are  two  different  persons.  Sir  A.  Cunning- 
ham is  of  the  same  oi)iuiou.  It  may  be  noted  that  Padma-sambhava 
is  credited  with  inti-oducing  the  more  corrupt  form  of  Buddhiem  along 
with  magic  into  Tibet  at  a  hater  date,  probably  in  the  eighth  century. 

^  For  the  account  of  Nagarjuua's  disciple  Deva,  mentioned  by 
Hiouen  Thsang,  see  Beal's  Records,  ii.  97. 


NAGAEJUNA,    GOBAKH-NATH.  1 93 

Among  otlier  deified,  or  partially  deified  Bodhi- 
sattvas,  whose  images  and  Stupas  (p.  161)  the  Chinese 
pilgrims  found  scattered  in  various  parts  of  India,  may 
be  mentioned,  those  of  the  mythical  Buddhas  who 
preceded  Gautama,  especially  Kasyapa\  Then  we  have 
Rahula  (son  of  Gautama),  the  patron  of  all  novices,  and 
founder  of  the  realistic  school  called  Vaibhashika  ^ ; 
Dharma-jiala,  Vasu-mitra  (or  Vasu-bandhu),  Asva- 
ghosha,  Gunamati,  Sthiramati,  and  others.  In  this 
practice  of  deifying  their  saints,  Buddhists  merely 
followed  the  example  of  the  adherents  of  Hinduism. 
And  we  may  add  that  this  tendency  is  constantly  re- 
peating itself  in  the  religious  history  of  all  nations. 

There  is  even  a  tendency  to  press  the  saints  of  other 
countries  into  the  service.  This  is  remarkably  exemplified 
in  the  history  of  Barlaam  and  Josaphat,  current  in  Europe 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  zealous  Koman  Catholics  of 
those  days  thought  that  they  could  not  exclude  so  noble 
a  monk  as  Buddha  from  the  catalogue  of  their  own 
saints,  and  so  they  registered  him  in  their  list  as  St. 
Josaphat  (Josaphat  being  a  corruption  of  Bodhisat). 
Colonel  Yule,  in  his  Marco  Polo,  states  that  a  church  in 
Palermo  is  dedicated  to  this  saint. 

And  here  mention  may  be  made  of  a  modern  deified 
Hindu  teacher  or  sage,  named  Gorakh-nath,  who  is  said 
to  have  gone  from  India  into  Nepal,  and  is  worshipped 

^  Of  course  not  to  be  confounded  with  Gautama's  disciple  of  the 
same  name,  who  is  generally  called  Maha-Kasyapa, 

^  According  to  Eitel  he  is  still  revered  as  the  patron-saint  of  all 
novices,  and  is  to  be  re-born  as  the  eldest  son  of  every  future  Buddha ; 
see  Legge's  Fa-hien,  p.  46, 

O 


1 94     mSE  OF  THEISTIC  AND  POLYTHEISTIC  BUDDHISM. 

there  as  well  as  at  Gorakh-pur  and  throughout  the 
Panjab.  Very  little  is  known  about  him,  and  he 
belongs  more  to  Hinduism  than  to  Buddhism.  Some 
say  that  he  was  a  cotemporary  of  Kabir  (1488-15 12), 
and,  according  to  a  Janamsakhi,  he  once  had  an  inter- 
view with  Nanak,  the  founder  of  the  Sikh  sect.  Such 
legendary  accounts  as  are  current  are  wrapped  in  much 
mystery.   One  legend  describes  him  as  born  from  a  lotus. 

Others  describe  him  as  the  third  or  fourth  in  a  series 
of  Saiva  teachers,  and  the  founder  of  the  Kanphata 
sect  of  Yogis.  The  remarkable  thing  about  him  is  that 
he  succeeded  in  achieving  an  extraordinary  degree  of 
popularity  among  Northern  Hindus  and  among  some 
adherents  of  Buddhism  in  Nepal.  His  tomb  is  in  the 
Panjab,  and  he  is  to  this  day  adored  as  a  kind  of  god 
by  immense  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  of  North 
Western  India  under  the  hills. 

But  the  canonization  of  such  historical  teachers  in 
India  and  their  elevation  to  semi-divine  rank  did  not 
satisfy  the  craving  of  the  uneducated  masses,  either 
among  Buddhists  or  Hindiis,  for  personal  deities,  pos- 
sessed of  powers  over  human  affairs  far  greater  than 
any  departed  human  beings,  however  eminent.  In 
Buddhism  the  sujoposed  existence  of  the  more  god-like 
Bodhi-sattva  Maitreya — venerated  by  both  the  Mahil- 
yana  and  the  Hina-yana  schools — was  not  sufficient  to 
satisfy  this  craving. 

Hence  the  '  Great  Vehicle '  soon  began  to  teach  the 
existence  of  numerous  mythological  Bodhi-sattvas, 
other  than  Maitreya,  to  whom  no  historical  character 
belonged,  but  whose  functions  were  more  divine. 


LECTUEE    IX. 

TJieistic  and  Polytheistic  Buddhism, 

In  the  preceding  Lecture  I  have  endeavoured  to 
sketch  the  rise  of  theistic  and  polytheistic  Buddhism. 

We  have  now  to  turn  our  attention  to  its  develop- 
ment, especially  in  regard  to  the  worship  of  mythical 
Bodhi-sattvas,  and  of  the  Hindu  gods  and  other  mytho- 
logical beings. 

Some  of  the  Bodhi-sattvas  of  the  Maha-yana  or  Great 
System  were  merely  quasi-deifications  of  eminent  saints 
and  teachers.  Others  were  impersonations  of  certain 
qualities  or  forces ;  and  just  as  in  early  Buddhism 
we  have  the  simple  triad  of  the  Buddha,  his  Law, 
and  his  Order,  so  in  Northern  Buddhism  the  worship 
of  mythical  Bodhi-sattvas — other  than  Maitreya — was 
originally  confined  to  a  triad,  namely  (i)  Maiiju-sri, 
'he  of  beautiful  glory;'  (2)  Avalokitesvara,  'the  look- 
ing-down  lord,'  often  called  Padma-pani,  *  the  lotus- 
handed  ;'  (3)  Vajra-pani  or  Vajra-dhara,  'the  thun- 
derbolt-handed.' 

These  three  mythical  Bodhi-sattvas  were  not  known 
to.  early  Buddhists,  nor  to  the  Buddhists  of  Ceylon. 
They  are  not  even  found  in  the  oldest  books  of  the 
Northern  School  (such  as  the  Lalita-vistara),  though 
they  occur  conspicuously  in  the  Saddharma-pundarika. 

All  we  can  say  with  certainty  is,  that  when  Fa-hien 
visited  Mathura  on  the  Jumna  400  years  after  Christ, 
their  cult  certainly  existed  there  at  that  time. 

o  2 


^ 


196  THEISTIC   AND    TOLYTHEISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

We  shall  not  be  far  wrong  if  we  assert  that  it 
was  adopted  in  about  the  third  century  of  our  era. 

As  already  indicated  (see  p.  175),  the  idea  of  the  first 
Buddhist  triad — the  Buddha,  the  Law,  and  the  Monastic 
Order — accepted  by  the  adherents  of  both  Vehicles — 
was  probably  derived  from  the  earliest  Brahmanical 
triad.     (See    also   Brahmanism   and    Hindiiism,    pp.  9, 

44.  74-) 

In  the  same  way  the  second  Buddhist  triad  intro- 
duced by  tlie  advanced  teachers  of  the  '  Great  Vehicle,' 
viz.  Manj  u-sri,  Avalokitesvara  ( =  Padma-pani),  and 
Vajra-pani,  corresponded  to  the  later  Hindu  triad 
(tri-murti)  of  deities,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva. 

I  have  explained  in  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism ' 
(pp.  54,  "j^)  how  the  gods  Vishnu  and  Siva  gradually 
usurped  the  position  of  tlie  god  Brahma,  whom  they 
dispossessed  of  his  co-equality  with  themselves,  and 
how  the  whole  mythology  of  the  Hindus,  which  was 
originally  complicated  by  a  large  admixture  of  pre- 
Aryan  and  Vedic  elements,  ultimately  became  more 
simplified  by  arranging  itself  under  the  two  heads  of 
Vaishnavism  and  Saivism,  all  other  mythological  person- 
ages being  regarded  as  forms  of  either  Vishnu  or  Siva. 

In  contradistinction  to  this,  we  find  that  each  member 
of  the  two  Buddhist  triads  holds  its  own,  and  we  are 
led  on  to  a  system  which  bewilders  us  by  ever  in- 
creasing complications — a  system  which  preserves  the 
individuality  of  its  own  triads  and  deified  saints,  and 
yet  recognizes  almost  all  the  gods,  demigods,  demons, 
and  supernatural  beings  of  Hinduism. 

I  propose  now  to  offer  some  account  of  the  develop- 


AVALOKITESVAEA   OR    PADMA-PANI.  197 

ment  of  the  Buddhist  Pantheon,  bepjinnino;  with  the 
mythical  conceptions  peculiar  to  Buddhism,  and  passing 
on  to  those  held  in  common  with  Hinduism. 

And  first  as  to  the  second  Buddhist  triad  above- 
named,  it  may  be  noted,  as  a  proof  of  the  very  gradual 
growth  of  Buddliistic  mythology,  that  in  the  earlier 
developments  of  Buddhism  the  three  Bodhi-sattvas 
constituting  that  triad  have  very  restricted  functions. 

When  I  visited  the^  Buddhist  caves  at  Ellora,  I 
noticed  that  in  the  ancient  sculptures  there,  Padma- 
pani  and  Vajra-pani  (but  not  Manju-sri)  are  repre- 
sented as  attendants  of  the  human  Buddha. 

Of  course  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  duty  of 
guarding  the  Buddha  ultimately  expanded  into  that  of 
watching  over  and  protecting  the  whole  Buddhist  world, 
though  it  is  difficult  to  determine  which  of  the  three 
mythical  Bodhi-sattvas  became  first  celebrated  for  the 
effective  discharge  of  this  duty,  or  to  winch  of  the  three 
chronological  precedence  ought  to  be  assigned. 

Without  taking  the  order  already  given,  we  may 
begin  with  Padma-pani  as  the  most  popular,  and  may 
note  that  he  has  a  name,  Avalokitesvara,  composed  of 
the  two  Sanskrit  words  avalokita,  '  looking  down  \' 
and  Isvara,  'lord,'  the  latter  being  the  Brahmanical 
name  for  the  Supreme  God — a  name  wholly  unrecog- 
nized by  early  Buddhism,  but  assigned  by  the  Hindus 
to  the  three  personal  gods,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva, 
especially  to  the  latter. 

^  The  use  of  the  passive  participle  in  an  active  sense  is  not  un- 
common in  Sanskrit,  but  is  generally  confined  to  verbs  involving  some 
idea  of  motion. 


1 98  THEISTIC    AND    POLYTHEISTIC    BUDDHISM. 

In  the  duty  of  watching  over  and  protecting  the 
whole  Buddhist  world,  Avalokitesvara  ( =  Padma-pani), 
that  is,  'the  lord  who  looks  down  with  pity  on  all  men,' 
certainly  takes  the  lead,  and  his  name  was  in  keeping 
with  the  reputation  for  answering  prayer  which  he 
soon  achieved. 

In  the  Lamism  of  Tibet,  he  is,  as  we  shall  see  here- 
after, a  kind  of  divine  Pope,  existing  eternally  in  the 
heavens  as  Yicar  of  one  of  the  Buddhas  of  the  present 
age,  but  delegating  his  functions  to  a  succession  of 
earthly  Popes  in  whom  he  is  perpetually  incarnated 
and  re-incarnated,  while  at  the  same  time  preserving 
his  own  personality  in  his  own  heaven. 

Indeed,  the  popularity  of  his  worship  is  one  of  the 
chief  characteristics  of  the  Maha-yana  system,  and  is 
not  confined  to  Tibet,  though  he  is  believed  to  be  the 
special  patron  of  that  country.  It  is  he  who  during 
the  continuance  of  the  present  age  of  the  world  presides 
over  the  whole  cycle  of  soul-migration.  In  a  word,  the 
temporal  welfare  of  all  living  beings,  and  of  all  who 
have  to  wander  through  the  worlds  of  the  gods,  men, 
demons,  ghosts,  animals,  and  livers  in  hell,  is  especially 
assigned  to  him. 

People,  therefore,  pray  to  him  more  frequently  than 
to  any  other  Eodhi-sattva,  and  not  only  for  release 
from  the  misery  of  future  re-births,  but  in  all  cases  of 
present  bodily  danger  and  domestic  affliction.  Hence 
he  has  numerous  other  names  or  epithets,  such  as  '  God 
of  mercy,'  'Ocean  of  pity'  (Karunarnava),  'Deliverer 
from  fear '  (Abhayam-da),  '  Lord  of  the  world  '  (Lokes- 
vara),  'World-protector'  (Loka-pala),  'Protector  of  the 


AVALOKITESVARA    OE    PADMA-PANT.  1 99 

Aryas  '  (Arya-pala)  ;  and  the  Chinese  traveller  Fa-hien 
says  of  himself,  that  he  prayed  in  his  heart  for  the  aid 
of  Avalokitesvara  when  in  great  peril  during  a  storm 
at  sea. 

That  his  worship  was  very  prevalent  among  Buddhists 
of  the  Maha-yana  School  all  over  India,  as  well  as  in 
Tibet,  from  the  fourth  to  the  seventh  century,  is  attested 
also  by  Hiouen  Thsang.  Both  travellers  tell  us  that 
they  frequently  met  with  his  images,  which  were  often 
placed  on  the  tops  of  mountains.  Possibly  this  fact 
may  account  for  the  name  he  acquired  of  the  '  Looking- 
down  lord,'  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  that 
his  name  may  have  led  to  the  selection  of  high  situations 
for  his  temples  and  images. 

And  it  may  be  observed  here  that  although  Avalo- 
kitesvara bears  a  close  resemblance  in  character  to 
Vishnu,  yet  his  images  often  conform  to  the  Brahma 
type,  and  sometimes  to  that  of  Siva  ^.  He  has  generally 
several  faces — sometimes  even  eleven  or  twelve — and 
usually  four  or  eight  arms.  These  faces  are  placed  one 
above  the  other  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  in  three 
tiers,  and  probably  indicate  that  he  looks  down  on  all 
three  worlds,  namely,  the  worlds  of  desire,  of  true  form, 
and  of  no  form  (pp.  213,  214),  from  all  points  of  the 
horizon. 

Note,  however,  that  two  of  his  hands  are  generally 
folded,  as  if  adoring  the  Buddha,  while  his  two  other 
hands  hold  such  emblems  as  the  lotus  and  wheel 
(especially  the    lotus).     This  distinguishes  the  images 

^  See  Beal's  Records,  i.  114,  note  107. 


200  THEISTIC    AND   POLYTHEISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

of  tlie  mere  Bodhi-sattva  Avalokitesvara  from  those 
of  tlie  god  Vishnu,  who,  although  he  has  four  arms, 
is  never  represented  in  an  attitude  of  adoration. 
Note,  too,  that  the  many-headed  images  of  Avalo- 
kitesvara probably  belong  to  the  later  phase  of  the 
Malia-yana,  when  he  was  regarded  as  an  emanation  or 
spiritual  son  of  the  Dhyani-Buddha  Amitabha,  whose 
head  forms  the  eleventh  above  his  own  ten.  There 
are  descriptions  of  earlier  idols,  which  make  it  probable 
that  Avalokitesvara  was  originally  represented  in  ordi- 
nary human  shape. 

When  his  worship  was  introduced  into  China  the 
name  he  received  was  Kwan-she-yin  or  Kwan-yin  (in 
Japan  Kwan-non) — a  name  denoting  (according  to 
Professor  Legge)  '  one  who  looks  down  on  the  sounds 
of  the  world,  and  listens  to  the  voices  of  men.' 

We  know  that  each  of  the  chief  Hindu  gods  had  his 
female  counterpart  or  Sakti,  who  is  often  more  wor- 
shipped than  the  male.  Similarly  the  female  counter- 
part of  the  male  Avalokitesvara  is  the  form  of  the  god 
chiefly  worshipped  in  China  and  Japan ^.  In  those 
countries  he  is  only  known  in  the  feminine  character  of 
'  goddess  of  mercy,'  and  in  this  form  is  represented  with 
two  arms,  but  oftener  with  four  or  more,  and  even  with 
a  thousand  eyes. 

The  connexion  of  Avalokitesvara  with  Siva,  as  well 
as  with  Vishnu,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  in  some 
characteristics    Kwan-yin    corresponds   to   the    Durga 


'  Professor  Legge  tells  us  that  an  intelligent  Chinese  once  asked 
him  whether  '  the  worshiii  of  Mary  in  Europe  was  not  similar  1 ' 


VAJRA-PANI,    MANJU-SRi.  20I 

form  of  Siva's  wife,  and  in  otliers  to  the  form  called 
Parvati,  who,  as  dwelling  on  mountains,  may  be  sup- 
posed to  look  down  with  compassion  on  the  world. 

As  to  Vajra-pani  (or  Vajra-dhara),  *  the  thunderbolt- 
handed,'  this  Bodhi-sattva  corresponds  in  some  respects 
to  Indra.  He  is  the  fiercest  and  most  awe-inspiring  of 
all  the  Boclhi-sattvas,  and  was,  in  time,  converted  into 
a  kind  of  Buddhistic  form  of  Siva,  resemblino;  that 
god  in  his  character  of  controller  of  the  demon-host 
and  destroyer  of  evil  spirits.  Hiouen  Thsang  describes 
how  eight  Vajra-panis  surrounded  the  Buddha  as  an 
escort,  when  he  journeyed  to  visit  his  father  Suddho- 
dana.  Vajra-pani  is  of  course  a  popular  object  of 
veneration  in  all  Northern  Buddhist  countries,  where 
a  dread  of  malignant  spirits  is  so  prevalent  that  the 
waving  to  and  fro  of  an  implement  symbolizing  a  thun- 
derbolt (Vajra,  or  in  Tibetan  Dorje)  is  practised  as  a 
method  of  kee23ing  them  at  bay  and  averting  their  malice. 

Nevertheless,  Vajra-pani  is  not  so  popular  as  the 
third  Bodhi-sattva,  Maiiju-sri,  '  he  of  glorious  beauty,' 
also  called  Mafiju-ghosha,  'having  a  beautiful  voice,' 
and  Vagisvara,  '  lord  of  speech,'  This  Bodhi-sattva, 
as  '  wisdom  personified,'  and  as  '  lord  of  harmony,'  may 
be  regarded  as  a  counterpart  of  the  Brahmanical  Brahma 
or  Visva-Karman,  the  supposed  creator  of  the  universe. 
Brahma,  however,  in  his  character  of  chief  god,  needed  no 
Buddhistic  substitute,  having  been  incorporated  by  name 
into  Buddhism.  Maiiju-sri,  as  '  lord  of  speech,'  seems 
also  to  be  a  counterpart  of  Brahma's  consort  Sarasvati. 

According  to  some,  a  learned  and  eloquent  Brahman 
teacher,  named  Manju-srI,  introduced  Buddhism  from 


202  THEISTIC    AND    POLYTHEISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

India  into  Nepal  about  250  years  after  the  Nirvana  of 
Buddha,  and  the  mythical  Manju-sri  may  have  been  a 
development  of  the  historical  personage.  His  worship 
is  mentioned  by  both  Fa-hien  and  Hiouen  Thsang  \ 
and  seems  to  have  been  very  popular, 

A  personification  of  Prajna  paramita,  '  transcendent 
wisdom,'  is  also  named.  And  indeed  it  seems  natural 
that  so  soon  as  the  Buddhists  began  to  personify 
qualities  and  invest  them  with  divine  attributes,  learn- 
ing should  have  been  among  the  first  selected  for 
deification,  as  it  was  by  the  Hindus  in  early  times. 

Mark,  however,  that  the  popular  Manju-sri  has  no 
place  assigned  to  him  in  the  Dhyani-Buddha  theory. 

This  mystical  theory  was  a  later  development.  It 
may  be  explained  thus  : — The  term  Dhyana  (Jhana) 
is  a  general  expression  for  the  four  gradations  of  mystic 
meditation  which  have  ethereal  spaces  or  worlds  cor- 
responding to  them  (p.  209),  and  a  Dhyani-Buddha  is 
a  Buddha  who  is  supposed  to  exist  as  a  kind  of  spiritual 
essence  in  these  higher  regions  of  abstract  thought. 

That  is  to  say,  every  Buddha  who  appears  on  earth 
in  a  temporary  human  body — with  the  object  of  teach- 
ino-  men  how  to  o;ain  Nirvana — exists  also  in  an  ideal 
counterpart,  or  ethereal  representation  of  himself,  in  the 
formless  worlds  of  meditation  (p.  213).  These  ideal 
Buddhas  are  as  numerous  as  the  Buddhas,  but  as  there 
are  only  five  chief  human  Buddhas  in  the  present  age — 
Kraku-cchanda,  Kanaka-muni,  Kasyapa,  Gautama,  and 

^  Legge's  Translation,  p.  46.  Beal,  i.  180,  ii.  220.  According  to 
Schlagintweit,  a  historical  teacher  named  Mauju-sri  taught  in  the  eighth 
or  ninth  century  a.  d. 


DHYANI-BUDDHAS,    DHYANI-BODHI-SATTYAS.        203 

the  future  Buddlia  Maitreya — so  there  are  ouly  five  cor- 
responding Dhyani-Buddhas : — Vairocana,  Akshobhya, 
Katna-sambhava,  Amitabha,  and  Amogha-siddha  (some- 
times represented  in  images  as  possessing  a  third  eye). 
But  this  is  not  all ;  each  of  these  produces  by  a  process 
of  evolution  a  kind  of  emanation  from  himself  called 
a  Dhyani-Bodhi-sattva,  to  act  as  the  practical  head  and 
guardian  of  the  Buddhist  community  between  the  in- 
terval of  the  death  of  each  human  Buddha  and  the 
advent  of  his  successor.  Hence  there  are  five  Bodhi- 
sattvas — Samanta-bhadra,  Yajra-pani,  Katna-pani,  Pad- 
ma-pani  (  =  Avalokitesvara),  and  Yisva-pani  —  corre- 
sponding to  the  five  Dhyani-Buddhas  and  to  the  five 
earthly  Buddhas  respectively.  In  Nepal  five  correspond- 
ing female  Saktis  or  Tara-devis  are  named  (see  p.  216). 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  Chinese  pilgrims  from  the 
fifth  to  the  seventh  centuries,  while  often  mentioning 
the  Bodhi-sattvas,  make  no  allusion  to  any  of  the 
Dhyani-Buddhas — whence  we  may  gather  that  Ami- 
tabha, though  adopted  into  Indian  Buddhism,  was  not 
actually  worshipped  in  India  at  least  as  a  personal  god. 

In  point  of  fact,  it  was  only  the  Buddhism  of  the 
North  which  was  not  satisfied  with  the  original  triad 
of  the  Buddha,  the  Law,  and  the  Monkhood.  It, 
therefore,  invented  in  addition  five  triads,  each  con- 
sisting of  a  Dhyani-Buddha,  a  Dhyani-Bodhi-sattva,  and 
an  earthly  Buddha,  though  of  these  triads  only  one  was 
of  importance,  namely,  that  consisting  of  Amitabha, 
Avalokitesvara,  and  the  human  Buddha,  Gautama.  But 
the  Lalita-vistara  does  not  mention  this  theory. 

It  should  be  observed,  too,  that  an  important  addi- 


204  THEISTIC    AND    POLYTHEISTIC    BI'DDHISM. 

tion  to  the  Maha-yana  doctrine  was  made  in  certain 
Northern  countries  about  the  tenth  century  of  our  era. 

A  particular  sect  of  Buddhists  in  Nepal,  calHng  them- 
selves Aisvarikas,  propounded  a  theory  of  a  Supreme 
Being  (Isvara),  to  whom  they  gave  the  name  of  a  '  prim- 
ordial Buddha'  (Adi-Buddha),  and  who  was  declared  to 
be  the  source  and  originator  of  all  things,  and  the 
original  Evolver  of  the  Dhyani-Buddhas,  or  Buddhas 
of  contemplation,  while  they  again  were  supposed  to 
evolve  their  corresponding  Dhyani-Bodhi-sattvas. 

It  is  clear,  of  course,  that  this  addition  was  a  mere 
adaptation  of  Buddhism  to  Brahmanisra,  and  that  the 
Adi-Buddha  was  invented  to  serve  as  a  counterpart  of 
the  One  Universal  Spirit  Brahma — the  one  eternally 
existing  spiritual  Essence,  from  which  all  existing  things 
are  mere  emanations. 

Sometimes,  however,  this  Adi-Buddha  is  said  to  have 
produced  all  things  through  union  with  Prajna  (men- 
tioned before,  p.  202),  in  which  case  he  is  rather  to  be 
identified  with  the  personal  Creator  Brahma- 
Observe,  moreover,  that  even  in  early  times  one  of 
the  Dhyani-Buddhas — the  one  called  Amitabha,  '  dif- 
fusing infinite  light,' — lost  his  purely  abstract  character, 
and  was  worshipped  by  Northern  Buddhists  as  a  per- 
sonal God.  He  is  in  the  present  day  held  by  them  to 
be  an  eternal  Being,  the  ideal  of  all  that  is  beautiful 
and  good,  who  receives  his  worshippers  into  a  heaven 
called  Sukhavati,  'paradise  of  pleasures'  (see  p.  183). 

But  it  must  also  be  noted  that  neither  Adi-Buddha 
nor  Amitabha,  when  regarded  as  personal  gods,  were 
held  to  be  Creators  of  the  World  in  the  Christian  sense. 


ADI-BUDDHA,    AMITABHA.  205 

Tliey  were  merely  Supreme  rulers  outside  and  above 
it ;  for  Northern  Buddhists  agree  with  Southern  in 
thinking  that  the  world  exists  of  itself,  and  that  its 
only  Creator  is  the  force  of  its  own  acts. 

We  pass  on  now  to  consider  how  far  and  with  what 
modifications  the  mythology  of  Brahmanism  and  Hindu- 
ism was  incorporated  into  Buddhism. 

I  have  already  pointed  out  that  although  the  Buddha 
changed  the  character  of  much  of  the  existing  mythology, 
he  never  prohibited  his  lay-followers  from  continuing 
their  old  forms  of  worship,  or  bowing  down  before  the 
deities  honoured  by  their  fathers  and  grandfathers. 

Apart  indeed  from  the  shrewd  policy  of  not  assuming 
an  attitude  of  hostility  to  popular  creeds  and  usages,  the 
tolerant  tendency  and  universality  of  the  Buddha's  teach- 
ing obliged  him,  in  common  consistency,  to  recognize, 
and  as  far  as  possible  appropriate,  the  various  religious 
elements  existing  around  him,  and  to  subordinate  them 
to  his  own  purposes. 

In  fact,  according  to  the  theory  of  true  Buddhism,  as 
has  been  well  pomted  out  by  other  writers,  there  was 
only  one  system  of  doctrine  and  only  one  Law — that 
Law  (Dharma)  which  Gautama  Buddha  came  to  reno- 
vate for  the  benefit  of  the  world  in  the  present  age. 

Hence  all  the  apparently  conflicting  creeds,  dogmas, 
forms,  ceremonies,  and  usages  of  all  nations,  tribes,  and 
races,  were  in  reality  mere  outcomes,  or  dim  recollections, 
or  corruptions,  of  that  one  and  the  same  universal 
Dharma  which  countless  Buddhas  had  preached  to  man- 
kind, in  countless  ages  before  the  time  of  Gautama,  and 
would  continue  to  preach  in  ages  to  come. 


206  THEISTIC   AND    POLYTHEISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

Hinduism,  therefore,  like  all  other  creeds,  was  con- 
tained in  the  Dharma  of  Buddhism,  and  the  great  object 
of  Gautama's  advent  was  not  to  uproot  the  old  religion, 
but  to  purify  it  from  error  and  restore  it. 

It  was  on  this  account  that  he  regarded  the  Hindu 
gods  as  occupying  a  place  in  his  own  system,  though 
not  without  some  modification  of  the  nature  of  their 
supposed  position,  offices,  and  functions. 

And  here  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  an  account  of 
the  later  Buddhist  theory  of  twenty-six  successive  tiers 
of  heavens,  one  rising  above  the  other  (p.  120). 

In  the  centre  of  the  world-system  stands,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  vast  mass  of  the  mythical  mountain  Meru. 
On  the  upper  portion  of  this  stupendous  axis  of  the 
universe  and  above  the  eight  chief  hells  and  the 
worlds  of  animals,  ghosts,  demons,  and  men,  is  situated 
the  lowest  heaven  of  the  gods,  where  abide  the  four 
Maha-rajas,  '  great  champions,'  or  guardians  of  the 
earth  and  the  heavens  against  the  demons,  who  are 
ever  engaged  in  assailing  them  from  their  world  below. 
These  four  are  represented  in  full  armour,  with  drawn 
swords  ;  one  quarter  of  the  heavens  being  assigned  to 
the  guardianship  of  each ;  viz.  the  East  to  Dhrita-rashtra, 
king  of  the  Gandharvas  ;  the  South  to  Virudhaka,  king 
of  the  Kumbhandas  ;  the  West  to  Virupaksha,  king  of 
the  Nagas  ;  the  North  to  Kuvera  (Vaisravana),  king 
of  the  Yakshas.  The  inhabitants  of  this  heaven  are 
called  Catur-maharaja-kayikas,  or  simply  Maharajika- 
devah.  Above  this  lowest  heaven,  and  on  the  highest 
summit  of  the  world's  axis,  Meru,  is  enthroned  the  god 
Sakra  (Indra),  known  in  the  Veda  as  god  of  the  atmo- 


BUDDHIST   HEAVENS.  207 

sphere.  He  is  lord  of  a  heaven  of  his  own,  and  no 
god  is  more  popular  among  Buddhists  or  oftener 
named  in  their  legends ;  yet  he  is  inferior  to  Maha- 
brahma  and  to  Mara  (p.  208).  Buddha  himself  was 
Indra  in  some  of  his  births  (p.  iii).  To  this  heaven 
he  ascended  to  preach  the  Law  to  his  mother. 

Hence  we  may  infer  that  in  the  early  days  of  Bud- 
dhism, Indra,  who  was  perhaps  the  chief  god  of  the 
Big-veda,  was  still  the  favourite  god  of  the  people. 

His  heaven  forms  the  second  tier,  reckoning  from  the 
lowest  upwards  (see  p.  120),  and  is  called  Trayastrinsa 
(Tavatinsa),  that  of  the  thirty-three  divinities — as  re- 
cognized in  the  Yedic  hymns — consisting  of  the  three 
groups  of  eleven  Eudras,  eight  Vasus,  and  twelve  Adit- 
yas,  together  with  personifications  of  Heaven  and  Earth. 

The  remaining  heavens  of  the  gods,  which  rise  in 
succession  above  the  lowest  and  above  Indra's  and 
therefore  in  the  sky  above  Mount  Meru,  are  the  third, 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth.  These  are  not  illuminated  by 
the  sun  and  moon,  since  the  gods  who  live  in  them  give 
out  a  sufficient  light  from  their  own  persons.  The  first 
of  them,  or  third  of  the  heavens,  is  inhabited  by  beings 
called  Yamas.  They  were  known  to  the  Brahmans  and 
probably  presided  over  the  periods  of  the  day.  They  are 
called  '  strifeless/  because  they  have  not  to  take  part 
in  the  war  constantly  being  waged  by  the  gods  of  the 
two  lower  heavens  against  the  demons  (Asuras),  who 
are  unable  to  advance  into  the  regions  above  Meru. 

The  fourth  heaven  is  that  of  the  Tushitas  or  '  per- 
fectly contented  beings.'  It  is  a  peculiarly  sacred 
region,    as   it  is   the    home  of  all   the   Bodhi-sattvas 


208  THEISTIC    AND    POLYTHEISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

destined  to  become  Buddbas.  Gautama  Buddba  once 
dwelt  tbere,  and  Maitreva  now  presides  in  it. 

Tbe  fifth  heaven  is  inhabited  by  the  Nirmana- 
rati-devah,  that  is,  '  beings  who  constantly  enjoy 
pleasures  provided  by  themselves.' 

The  sixth  heaven,  and  the  highest  of  the  Deva-lokas, 
is  the  abode  of  the  Para-nirmita-vasa-varti-devah,  'beinsfs 
who  constantly  enjoy  pleasures  provided  for  them  by 
others.'  These  beings  are  also  called  Maras,  and  are 
'  lords  of  sensuous  desires.'  When  the  theory  of  races 
of  gods  was  invented,  it  led  to  the  figment  of  millions 
of  Maras  ruled  over  by  a  chief  Mara,  who  tempts  men 
to  indulge  their  passions  (pp.  28,  t,^,  41),  and  is  always 
on  the  watch  to  enter  the  citadel  of  the  body  by  the 
gates  of  eye,  ear,  etc.  (see  note,  p.  129).  One  of 
Mara's  names  is  Kama,  '  desire.'  He  is  superior  to  all 
the  gods  of  the  worlds  of  sense,  even  to  Sakra  or  Indra. 
In  every  Cakravala  or  Universe  of  worlds  there  is  a 
Mara.  He  is  sometimes  called  the  Buddhist  Satan,  but 
this  is  misleading.  He  is  rather  a  superior  god,  whose 
power  consists  in  exciting  sensual  or  carnal  desires. 

So  far,  then,  the  heavens  are  all  worlds  of  sense, — like 
the  earth  and  the  lower  regions, — and  are  spheres  in- 
habited by  beings  who  have  sexual  feelings  and  live 
active  Hves.  But  at  this  point  in  the  ascent  upwards 
all  sensuality  ceases,  and  we  are  introduced  to  beings 
who  enjoy  a  higher  condition  of  existence  in  which 
there  is  no  distinction  of  sex,  and  all  sensuous  desires 
and  objects  have  lost  their  hold  over  the  frame — a 
condition  supposed  to  be  induced  by  the  exercise  of 
mystical  abstract  meditation  (Dhyana,  Pali  Jhana). 


THE    FOUK    DHYANAS.  209 

The  importance  of  Dhyana  or  intense  abstract  medita- 
tion in  the  Buddhist  system  has  been  pointed  out  before 
(p.  32).  It  is  the  chief  rehgious  exercise  in  which  a 
true  follower  of  Buddha  can  engage,  and  although  it  is 
divided  into  four  stages,  the  man  who  exercises  himself 
perfectly  in  any  one  of  the  four,  becomes  so  sublimated 
and  refined  that  he  cannot  be  re-born  in  any  of  the 
sensuous  heavens,  or  in  any  region  lower  than  the 
Brahma  worlds. 

The  first  stage  of  Dhyana  consists  in  fixing  (Dharana) 
the  mind  and  at  the  same  time  exercising  the  thinking 
faculties  on  some  object,  in  such  a  way  that  a  state  of 
ecstatic  joy  and  serenity  is  attained. 

The  second  consists  in  concentrating  the  mind  or  soul 
so  intensely  on  itself  that  the  thinking  faculties  cease 
to  act  and  only  ecstatic  joy  and  serenity  remain. 

In  the  third,  nothing  remains  but  perfect  serenity. 

The  fourth  is  a  trance-like  condition  of  utter  indiffer- 
ence and  torpor,  in  which  there  is  neither  any  exercise  of 
thought,  nor  any  conscious  joy  or  serenity,  but  the  whole 
being  is  released  from  the  fetters  of  sense  and  soars 
to  a  transcendental  condition,  characterized  by  latent 
energy  and  a  power  of  working  miracles  (p.  133). 

These  four  stages  of  abstract  meditation  must  not  be 
confused  with  the  four  earnest  reflections  and  the  five 
contemplations  (pp.  49,  127),  which  are  not  so  abstract 
and  require  more  earthly  objects  on  which  to  be  exer- 
cised. 

The  fourth  and  last  Dhyana  is  also  called  Samadhi, 
and  properly  means  such  a  perfect  concentration  of 
the  soul's  faculties,  that  the  soul  becomes  merged  in 

P 


2IO  THEISTIC    AND    POLYTHEISTIC    BUDDHISM. 

itself.  It  is  often  used  to  denote  an  ecstatic  condition, 
scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  trance  or  hypnotism  or 
catalepsy.  Those  devotees  in  India  who  practise  it  are 
buried,  not  burnt,  and  their  tombs  are  called  Samadhs, 

To  return  now  to  Buddhist  Cosmology,  the  theory  of 
later  Buddhism  is  that  he  who  has  practised  the  first 
Dhyana  will  rise  at  death  to  one  of  the  three  tiers  of 
heavens  connected  with  that  first  Dhyana,  i.e.  to  the 
first  and  lowest  of  the  four  groups  of  worlds  of  true  form 
(rupa),  in  which  all  sexual  distinctions  are  obliterated. 

This  first  or  lowest  group  consists  of  the  worlds  of  the 
Brahmas,  a  high  order  of  gods  divided  into  three  classes 
with  three  tiers  of  abodes. 

The  first  class  of  Brahma  gods,  inhabiting  the  first  or 
lowest  of  the  tiers  of  the  Brahma  abodes,  consists  of  the 
Brahma-parisajja  devah,  or  beings  who  constitute  the 
retinue  of  the  god  Maha-brahma — the  chief  of  all  the 
Buddhist  gods. 

The  second  class  of  Brahma  gods,  inhabiting  the  second 
tier,  consists  of  the  Brahma-purohita  devah,  'beings  who 
are  the  ministers  of  Maha-brahma.' 

The  thii'd  class  of  Bralima  gods,  inhabiting  the  highest 
of  the  three  tiers,  consists  of  the  Maha-brahmas,  '  great 
Brahmas,'  of  whom  Maha-brahma  is  the  chief. 

The  inhabitants  of  these  three  worlds  are  sometimes 
called  the  Brahma-kayika  devah, '  gods  having  a  Brahma 
form.' 

It  is  important,  however,  to  note  that  Brahma  or 
Maha-brahma,   sometimes   called   Brahma   Saham-pati, 

*  Even  the  Brahmas,  after  immense  periods  of  life  in  the  Brahma 


HEAVENS   OF   BEINGS   HAVING   TRUE   FORM.        211 

'  lord  of  those  who  have  to  suffer  \'  is  the  king  of  all  the 
higher  heavens  (p.  214),  ruling  there,  as  Mara  and  ludra 
do  in  the  lower  worlds  and  heavens  of  sense  and 
desire.  Out  of  deference  to  Brahmanism  he  has  been 
adopted  as  the  chief  god  of  the  Buddhist  Pantheon,  and 
yet  he  is  far  inferior  to  the  Buddha. 

Furthermore,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  every  Cakra- 
vala  or  '  system  of  worlds  '  (see  p.  1 20)  has  its  own 
Maha-brahma  ruling  over  its  own  higher  heavens,  and 
that  as  there  are  countless  Cakra-valas,  so  there  are 
countless  Maha-brahmas.  Nor  is  any  of  these  chief  gods 
eternal.  Each  has  to  pass  into  some  other  form  of 
existence  at  the  end  of  vast  periods  of  time,  and  is 
then  succeeded  by  another.  Gautama  Buddha  himself 
was  born  four  times  as  Maha-brahma  (see  p.  1 1 1)'*. 

The  second  group  of  worlds  of  true  form  has  also 
three  tiers  of  heavens  like  the  first,^and  is  assigned  as 
an  abode  to  those  who  have  risen  to  the  second  degree 
of  contemplation. 

The  characteristjjC  of  these  three  heavens  is  that  they 
are  regions  of  true  light — not  of  the  sun's  light,  but  of 
mental  enlightenment,  and  each  of  the  three  is  inhabited 
by  beibgs  who  have  raised  themselves  to  different  heights 
of  knowledge  and  intelligence. 

In  the  first  are  the  Parittabha  (Parifctabha)  devah, 
'beings  of  circumscribed  or  limited  enlightenment;'  in 


heavens,  have  to  go  through  other  births  in  one  of  the  six  ways  of 
migration.  Saham-pati  may  therefore  mean  '  the  lord  of  sufferers,' 
'  all  life  involving  suffering,'  and  this  excludes  the  idea  of  his  '  being 
lord  over  the  Buddha  who  has  not  to  be  born  again.' 

P  2 


212  THEISTIC    AND    POLYTHEISTIC    BUDDHISM. 

the  second  are  the  Apramanabha  (Appamanabha)  devah, 
'beings  of  infinite  light;'  in  the  third  are  the  Abha- 
svara  (Abhassara)  devah,  '  beings  of  the  clearest  light.' 

The  third  group  of  worlds  of  true  form  has  again  three 
tiers  of  heavens,  which  are  assigned  to  those  who  have 
raised  themselves  to  the  third  stage  of  contemplation. 

The  peculiarity  of  these  three  seems  to  be  that 
they  are  regions  of  the  greatest  purity,  and  that  each  of 
the  three  is  the  abode  of  beings  distinguished  by  higher 
and  higher  degrees  of  purity.  In  the  first  are  the 
Paritta-subha  (Paritta-subha)  devah,  *  gods  or  beings 
of  limited  purity;'  in  the  second  are  the  Apramana- 
subha  (Appamana-subha)  devah,  'beings  of  unlimited 
purity;'  in  the  third  are  the  Subha-kritsna  (Subha- 
kinna)  devah,  'beings  of  absolute  purity.' 

The  fourth  group  of  worlds  of  true  form  has  seven 
tiers  of  heavens,  occupied  by  those  beings  who  have 
risen  to  the  fourth  or  highest  grade  of  abstract  medita- 
tion (Dhyana),  which  is  really  a  state  of  meditating  on 
nothing  and  of  complete  indifference  to  all  concrete 
objects.  These  beings  are  the  emancipated  Arhats  who 
have  delivered  themselves  from  the  cycle  (Samsara)  of 
constant  re-birth  (p.  1 34). 

In  the  first  tier  are  the  Vrihat-phala  (Vehapphala) 
devah,  '  beings  enjoying  great  reward  ; '  in  the  second 
are  the  Asanjni-sattva  (Asanna-satta)  devah,  'beings 
lost  in  total  unconsciousness  ;'  in  the  third  are  the 
Avriha  (Aviha)  devah,  'beings  who  make  no  efforts/ 
in  the  fourth  are  the  Atapa  (Atappa)  devah, '  beings  who 
never  endure  any  pain  ;'  in  the  fiftli  are  the  Sudarsa 
(Sudassa)  devah,  *  beings  who  see  clearly ; '  in  the  sixth 


HEAVENS   OF   FORMLESS   BEINGS.  213 

are  the  Sudarsino  (Sudassi)  devah,  '  beings  of  beautiful 
appearance;'  in  the  seventh  are  the  Akanishtha  (Aka- 
nittha)  devah, '  highest  of  all  beings.'  In  this  last  must 
be  included  all  Arhats  and  Pratyeka-Buddhas. 

High  above  the  worlds  of  true  form  and  above  the 
abode  of  pure  contemplative  beings,  rise  the  four  heavens 
of  formless  entities — beings  who  have  no  material  frames, 
even  of  the  subtlest  kind,  but  are  mere  abstractions, 
such  as  the  Dhyani-Buddhas  (pp.  202,  203). 

In  the  first  of  these  formless  heavens  (Arupa-loka) 
are  the  Akasanantyayatana  devah,  'beings  who  are 
capable  of  conceiving  the  idea  of  infinite  space;'  in  the 
second  are  the  Vijnananantyayatana  devah, '  beings  who 
are  capable  of  conceiving  the  idea  of  infinite  intelli- 
gence;' in  the  third  are  the  Akincanyayatana  devah, 
'beings  who  can  conceive  the  idea  of  absolute  nonentity,' 
or,  in  other  words,  that  nothing  whatever  exists  any- 
where ;  in  the  fourth  and  highest  of  all  are  the  Naiva- 
sanjnanasanjnayatana  devah  (Nevasannanasannaya°-), 
'  beings  who  abide  in  neither  consciousness  nor  uncon- 
sciousness.' This  is  the  most  sublime  of  all  conditions, 
but  these  heavens  belong  to  mystical  Buddhism. 

Subjoined  is  a  synopsis  of  all  the  heavens  and  their 
inhabitants  explained  above  (see  Koeppen  i.  260). 

A. 

Heavens  of  beings  liable  to  sensuous  desires. 
(i)  Heaven  of  the  four  Maha-rajas. 

(2)  Heaven  of  the  Trayastrinsas. 

(3)  Heaven  of  the  Yamas. 

(4)  Heaven  of  the  Tushitas. 

(5)  Heaven  of  the  Nirmana-i'ati-devah. 

(6)  Heaven  of  the  Para-nirniita-vasa-vartins. 


214 


THEISTIC    AND   POLYTHEISTIC   BUDDHISM. 


(7 
(8 
(9 

(lo 

(12 

(13 
(H 
(15 


(i6 

(n 
(i8 

(19 

(20 
(21 
(22 


B. 

Heavens  of  beings  possessing  true  forms. 

First  Dhyana. 

Heaven  of  the  Brahma-parisajja  devSh. 
Heaven  of  the  Brahma-purohita  devah. 
Heaven  of  the  MahS-brahma  devah. 

Second  DhySua. 

Heaven  of  the  Parlttabha  devah. 
Heaven  of  the  Apramanabha  devah. 
Heaven  of  the  Abhasvara  devah. 

Third  DhySna. 

Heaven  of  the  Paritta-subha  devah. 
Heaven  of  the  Apramana-subha  devah. 
Heaven  of  the  Subha-kritsna  dev5h. 

Fourth  Dhyana. 

Heaven  of  the  Yrihat-phala  devah. 
Heaven  of  the  Asanjfli-sattva  devah. 
Heaven  of  the  Avriha  devah. 
Heaven  of  the  Atapa  devah. 
Heaven  of  the  Sudarsa  devah. 
Heaven  of  the  Sudarsino  devah. 
Heaven  of  the  Akanishtha  devah. 


Heavens  of  formless  entities. 

(23)  Heaven  of  the  Akasanantyayatana  devah. 

(24)  Heaven  of  the  Vijfiauauantyayatana  devah. 

(25)  Heaven  of  the  Akiucanyayatana  devah. 

(26)  Heaven  of  the  Naiva-sanjnanasanjnayata^ja  devah. 

This  elaborate  description  of  higher  and  higher 
conditions  of  future  existence  may  be  contrasted  with 
the  reticence  of  the  Bible  and  its  simple  allusion  to 
a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth,  wherein  dwelleth 
righteousness. 


.HINDU   GODS   ADOPTED    BY    BUDDHISM.  215 

The  description,  however,  belongs  to  later  Buddhism. 
It  enables  us  to  understand  the  true  position  of  the 
Buddhist  gods.  They  merely  constitute  one  of  the  six 
classes  of  beings,  and,  as  they  have  to  go  through  other 
forms  of  life,  are  inferior  to  Arhats  and  Buddhas. 

Maha-brahma  is  often  named,  whereas  Vishnu,  the 
popular  god  of  the  Hindus,  is  neglected.  In  point  of 
fact  he  was,  as  we  have  seen,  represented  by  Padma- 
pani  (Avalokitesvara,  p.  198),  who  seems  to  have  taken 
his  place  in  later  Buddhism. 

At  all  events  the  more  modern  form  of  Vishnu  called 
Krishna,  who  is  generally  worshipped  by  the  lower 
orders  of  Hindus  as  the  most  popular  god  of  mediaeval 
Hinduism,  has  not  been  adopted  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Buddhist  countries. 

When  I  w^as  at  Kandy  in  Ceylon  I  found  one  solitary 
shrine  (Devali)  dedicated,  not  to  Krishna,  but  to  Maha- 
Vishnu.  It  was  near  the  well-known  Tooth-temple  and 
appeared  almost  deserted.  The  shrine  was  at  the  end  of 
a  bare  room,  and  contained  a  small  silver-gilt  image  of 
Maha-Vishnu  (as  Vishnu  is  called  when  worshipped  by 
Buddhists,  just  as  the  chief  of  the  Brahma  gods  is 
called  Maha-Brahma)  about  half  a  foot  high.  In  the 
hands  of  the  image  was  a  thin  metal  bar  with  a  kind  of 
locket  or  amulet  suspended  from  it,  while  round  its 
neck  was  a  long  rosary  and  in  front  of  the  body  a  large 
plate  for  offerings.  The  folding  doors  of  the  sanctuary 
had  representations  of  the  sun  and  moon. 

Turning  to  the  god  Siva,  we  may  note  that  he  was 
adopted  by  later  Buddhism  in  his  character  of  Yogi, 
or  Maha-yogi  (see  'Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  83). 


2l6  THEISTIC    AND   POLYTHEISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

Then,  as  the  Buddhism  of  the  North  very  soon  became 
corrupted  with  Saivism  and  its  accompaniments,  Saktism, 
Tantrism,  and  Magic,  so  in  Northern  countries  various 
forms  of  Siva — such  as  Maha-Kala,  Bhairava,  Bhima — 
and  of  his  wife  (Parvati,  Durga,  etc.),  are  honoured, 
and  their  images  are  found  in  temples.  Sometimes 
bloody  sacrifices  are  ojBPered  to  them. 

Among  the  female  deities  forms  of  Tara  are  chiefly 
worshipped,  and  regarded  as  Saktis  of  the  Buddhas. 

It  is  even  held  by  the  disciples  of  the  more  advanced 
Maha-yana — especially  in  Nepal — that  there  are  five 
Saktis  or  female  Energies  (corresponding  to  the  five 
human  Buddhas),  whose  names  are  given  in  correspond- 
ing order  thus : — Vajra-dhatri,  Lo6ana,  Mamaki,  Pandara, 
and  Tara  or  Tara-devi  (the  latter  being  the  Tara  jjar 
excellence)  ^. 

But  the  goddess  Tara  was  also  worshipped  by  Bud- 
dhists in  India  proper  ;  for  we  find  that  Hiouen  Thsang 
alludes  to  having  seen  images  of  Tara  Bodhi-sattva  ^  in 
the  country  of  Magadha. 

I  may  mention,  too,  that  in  a  dilapidated  building, 
which  contains  the  Vajrasana  or  thunderbolt  throne 
of  Gautama  at  Buddha-Gaya  (in  the  same  country 
of  Magadha),  I  noticed  in  a  shrine  near  the  temple, 
an  image  of  Tara-devi,  which,  from  the  crown  of  fresh 
flowers  encircling  its  head,  appeared  to  have  been  re- 
cently worshipped  by  some  Buddhist  pilgrims,  who 
had  arrived  on  Ihe  day  of  my  visit  in  1876. 


See  Wright's  Nepal,  p.  43. 
Beal's  Eecords,  ii.  103,  174. 


HINDU    DEMONS    ADOPTED   BY    BUDDHISM.  21 7 

The  god  Indra,  usually  called  Sakra  (Sakka),  is,  as 
we  have  seen,  the  most  popular  god  of  the  early  Bud- 
dhist Pantheon  (pp.  51,  207).  He  is  a  friendly  deity  and 
never  exerts  evil  influences  over  men,  like  Mara.  On 
the  contrary,  if  any  "good  man  is  in  need  of  his  services 
he  descends  from  his  own  heaven  to  render  assistance  ; 
and  the  fact  of  his  aid  being  required  is  made  known 
to  him  by  his  throne  becoming  hot. 

The  Dharma-pada  (107,  392)  mentions  Agni,  god  of 
fire,  and  again  (48),  Antaka,  god  of  death,  sometimes 
identified  with  Mara  or  with  Yama,  '  ruler  in  Hell.'  A 
form  of  Yama  called  Yamantaka  is  also  recognized. 

In  Ceylon  I  observed  several  shrines  to  Kanda- 
Kumara,  a  form  of  Skanda  (son  of  Siva),  who  is  said 
to  have  received  the  gift  of  healing  from  Buddha. 

There  also  I  observed  shrines  of  Saman  (sometimes 
spelt  Samanta,  sometimes  Sumana),  the  tutelary  deity 
of  Adam's  Peak,  which  is  thence  called  Samanta-kuto 
and  Sumana-kuto. 

Then  there  were  shrines  dedicated  to  a  demoniacal 
goddess  called  Pattini  (regarded  sometimes  as  protect- 
ing from  small-pox),  and  to  certain  good  and  evil  genii, 
called  Naths  (Nathas  V)  as  in  Burma. 

No  doubt  the  worship  of  devils  and  demons  existed 
in  Ceylon  long  before  the  introduction  of  either  Brah- 
manism  or  Buddhism.  At  Colombo  in  1877  I  witnessed 
a  so-called  devil-dance,  performed  late  at  night  before 
the  then  Governor,  Sir  William  Gregory. 

First,  three  men  dressed  in  coarse,  loose,  jet-black 
dresses,  engaged  in  a  wild  dance  together.  They  had 
shaggy  hair,  blackened  faces  daubed  with  white  paint, 


2l8  THEISTIC   AND    POLYTHEISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

and  a  set  of  six  or  eight  long  projecting  false  teeth, 
which  protruded  far  below  the  lower  lip,  sometimes  one, 
sometimes  two  at  a  time.  Their  legs  were  completely 
covered  with  small  bells,  which  rattled  like  chains  when 
they  moved.  In  their  hands  they  held  three  flaring 
torches,  branching  from  one  handle.  At  intervals  they 
increased  the  glare  and  smoke  from  these  torches  by 
sprinkling  resin  upon  them. 

Their  dance  was  of  the  wildest  description,  in  a 
circle,  sometimes  moving  in  and  out,  and  crossing  each 
other,  and  all  the  while  beating  the  ground  violently 
with  their  jingling  legs,  which  kept  time  to  the  noisy 
music  of  tom-toms,  flagiolets,  horns,  etc.,  played  by 
attendant  musicians.  These  three  men  were  supposed 
to  represent  the  various  forms  of  typhus  fever.  At 
intervals  during  their  dance  they  assumed  frightful 
black  masks  with  hideous  open  mouths. 

Then  with  them  were  two  other  dancing  demons 
dressed  in  red,  not  so  hideous  in  appearance,  who  also 
danced  holding  torches.  These  represented  another 
form  of  devil.  They  danced  in  the  interval  of  the  two 
performances  of  the  black  devils.  There  were  also  three 
men  dressed  in  reddish  garments,  who  formed  part  of  the 
group  and  moved  about  quietly  among  the  others.  They 
were  described  to  me  as  devil-charmers  or  exercisers. 

Every  disease — every  calamity  has  its  presiding  demon, 
and  all  such  demons  are  the  servants  of  Buddha. 

In  regard  to  the  other  supernatural  beings  and  fig- 
ments of  Hindu  mythology  adopted,  with  a  few  unim- 
portant modifications,  by  Buddhists,  the  first  that  call 
for  mention  are  the  Pretas  (see  p.  121). 


HINDU   DEMONS   ADOPTED    BY   BUDDHISM.  219 

The  Pretas  are  beings  of  the  nature  of  ghosts  and 
goblins  who  have  recently  inhabited  the  earth,  and  are 
often  of  gigantic  size  and  terrific  appearance,  with  dried- 
up  limbs,  hairy  countenances,  enormous  bellies,  ever 
consumed  with  hunger  and  thirst,  and  yet  never  able 
to  eat  and  drink  by  reason  of  their  contracted  throats. 
Some  are  represented  as  trying  to  swallow  sparks  of 
fire  ;  others  try  to  eat  up  dead  bodies,  or  their  own 
flesh.  Possibly  this  form  of  re-birth  was  invented  to 
deter  the  laity  from  withholding  food  from  the  monks. 
The  Pretas  inhabit  a  region  above  the  hells.  Some, 
however,  assign  them  habitations  above  the  surface  of 
the  earth  or  in  desert  places  on  the  earth  itself. 

The  Asuras  or  Daityas  are  evil  demons  who,  like  the 
Titans  of  Greek  mythology,  are  always  at  war  with  the 
gods.  They  dwell  under  the  foundations  of  Mount 
Meru,  as  far  underneath  the  surface  of  the  earth  as  their 
great  enemy  Indra  is  above  it.  In  short,  if  he  may  be 
supposed  to  live  at  the  zenith,  they  live  at  the  nadir,  and 
their  battle-field  is  on  the  slopes  of  Meru. 

Closely  connected  with  them  are  the  Eakshasas,  who 
are  also  enemies  of  the  gods  and  are  represented  as 
monsters  of  frightful  form  and  man-eating  propensities. 
They  haunt  cremation-grounds  and  cemeteries  and  way- 
lay human  beings  in  solitary  places  to  devour  them. 

Then  there  is  a  class  of  very  malignant  demons 
called  Pisacas  (described  in  'Brahmanism  and  Hin- 
duism/ p.  242),  who  are  the  authors  of  all  evils. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Yakshas  and  Yakshinis  are  a 
class  of  good  genii  ruled  over  by  Kuvera,  '  god  of 
wealth,'  who  is  often  referred  to  in  Buddhist  writings 


2  20  THEISTIC   AND    POLYTHEISTIC   BUDDHISM." 

under  his  patronymic  Vaisravana  (Pali  Vessavano)  ^ 
These  beings  are  commonly  represented  in  sculptures  in 
human  form  and  held  to  be  harmless,  though  some 
Buddhist  legends  describe  them  as  cruel.  Stories  are 
told  about  some  of  them  being  converted  to  Buddhism. 

Then  come  the  Nagas,  who  are  constantly  alluded  to. 
They  properly  belong  to  a  class  of  serpent-demons, 
having  human  faces  with  serpent-Hke  lower  extremities, 
who  live  in  one  of  the  lower  regions  below  the  earth 
called  Patala,  or  under  the  waters.  They  are  introduced 
into  Buddhist  sculptures  as  worshippers  of  the  Buddha 
and  friends  of  all  Buddhists,  but  usually  represented 
as  ordinary  men.  The  Naga  Mucalinda  (also  Mucilinda), 
who  sheltered  Buddha,  was  a  real  serpent  (see  p.  39). 
Naga-kanyas  or  female  Nagas  (serpents  from  the  waist 
downwards)  are  also  not  uncommon  ^.  In  Kashmir 
Nagas  are  connected  with  fountains  and  the  sources  of 
rivers. 

Then  there  are  the  Mahoragas,  '  great  dragons,'  who 
also  belong  to  the  Naga  class  of  demons. 

We  ouo-ht  also  to  notice  the  Kumbhandas,  a  class  of 
demons  who  attend  on  Virudhaka  (p.  206) ;  the  Garudas, 

^  The  images  of  this  deity  represent  him  as  coarse  and  ill-favoured 
in  form  (his  name  in  fact  signifying  '  deformed ').  He  has  sometimes 
three  legs.  As  guardian  of  the  northern  quarter  he  is  sculptured  on 
the  corner  pillar  of  the  northern  gate  of  the  Bharhut  Stupa.  He  had 
a  metropolis  of  his  own,  according  to  Hindu  mythology  (as  we  know 
from  the  Megha-duta),  called  Alaka,  on  the  Himfdayas. 

^  A  very  interesting  specimen  of  ancient  sculpture  i-epresenting 
a  Naga-kanya  may  be  seen  in  the  museum  of  the  Indian  Institute, 
Oxford.  It  belongs  to  a  collection  of  Buddhist  antiquities  lent  by 
Mr.  R.  Sewell,  of  the  Madras  Civil  Service. 


HINDU   AND    BUDDHIST    MYTHOLOaY.  221 

a  bird-like  race  ruled  over  by  the  mythical  Garuda, 
king  of  birds  and  enemy  of  the  Nagas  and  serpents  ; 
the  Apsarases,  or  nymphs  produced  at  the  churning 
of  the  ocean.  These  last  are  sometimes  described  in 
Hindu  mythology  as  the  Huris  of  Indra's  heaven,  who 
are  assigned  to  heroes  killed  in  battle.  In  Buddhist 
sculptures  they  are  represented  as  beautiful  females, 
w^ho  are  properly  the  wives  of  Indra's  celestial  musicians 
called  Gandharvas. 

Finally,  mention  should  be  made  of  the  Kinnaras  and 
Kinnaris — bein'gs  who  ought  properly  to  be  represented 
Tj^ith  human  bodies  and  equine  heads,  and  are,  like  the 
Gandharvas,  heavenly  musicians.  It  is  even  recorded 
in  one  legend  that  the  Buddha  himself  in  a  former  life 
was  a  Kinnari. 

All  this  proves  the  close  connexion  of  Buddhism 
with  the  Hinduism  which,  like  Buddhism,  grew  out  of 
Brahmanism.  In  short,  the  one  mythology  is  so  inter- 
penetrated with  the  other,  that  Buddhism  in  making 
proselytes  throughout  Eastern  Asia  could  not  avoid 
propagating  Hindu  mythological  doctrines  along  with 
its  own. 

The  consequence  was  that  Hinduism,  though  often 
regarded  as  an  unproselyting  and  wholly  national  reli- 
gion, really  exercised  a  vast  influence  outside  its  own 
boundaries  and  among  alien  races. 

It  is,  at  any  rate,  a  remarkable  fact  that  no  mytho- 
logical system  has  ever  spread  over  so  large  an  area  of 
the  earth's  surface  as  that  which,  originating  in  India, 
was  accepted  to  a  great  extent  by  all  Buddhist  com- 
munities.    And  this  Indo-Buddhistic  system  of  mytho- 


222  THETSTIC    AND    POLYTHEISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

logy,  with  its,  to  us,  absurd  idolatry,  rests  on  an  ex- 
tremely subtle  form  of  pantheism,  which  is  not  to  be 
brushed  aside  as  too  contemptible  for  investigation. 

It  is  usual  to  denounce  all  such  systems  as  simple 
Heathenism ;  but  *  Heathenism'  means  the  religion  of 
'  the  nations' — the  religion  evolved  by  the  men  of  all 
countries  out  of  their  own  imaginations  and  by  their 
own  natural  faculties,  without  the  aid  of  any  true  super- 
natural revelation. 

And  assuredly  this  religion  of  human  nature  is  still 
a  strong  citadel  entrenched  behind  the  formidable  forces 
of  pride,  passion,  prejudice,  and  ignorance.  Yet  the 
walls  of  the  fortress  have  numerous  weak  places,  which 
the  wise  missionary,  armed  with  the  still  more  powerful 
forces  at  his  command,  will  endeavour  to  discover  and 
quietly  undermine.  By  patient  and  quiet  working  he 
must  win  the  day. 

With  man,  speed  and  rapidity  of  action  are  sup- 
posed to  be  the  chief  evidences  of  progress  and  the  chief 
factors  in  success.  The  Evangelist,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  a  worker  for  God  and  a  fellow-worker  with  God,  and 
ought  not  to  be  discouraged  by  the  tardy  advance  of  the 
Truth  which  he  advocates.  He  may  have  his  moments 
of  despondency,  but  he  has  only  to  look  around  and 
observe  that  God  works  everywhere  throughout  His 
own  Universe  by  slow  and  almost  imperceptible  pro- 
cesses. The  ripe  fruit  falls  from  the  tree  in  a  second, 
but  its  maturity  is  not  effected  without  a  whole  year 
of  gradual  preparation. 


LECTUKE  X. 

Mystical  Buddhism  in  its  connexion  ivith  the  Yoga 
^hilosofhy. 

The  first  idea  implied  by  Buddhism  is  intellectual 
enlightenment.  But  Buddhism  has  its  own  theory 
of  enlightenment — its  own  idea  of  true  knowledge, 
wliich  it  calls  Bodhi,  not  Veda.  By  true  knowledge 
it  means  knowledge  acquired  by  man  through  his  own 
intellectual  faculties  and  through  his  own  inner  con- 
sciousness, instincts,  and  intuitions,  unaided  by  any 
external  or  supernatural  revelation  of  any  kind. 

But  it  is  important  to  observe  that  Buddhism,  in 
the  carrying  out  of  its  own  theory  of  entire  self- 
dependence  in  the  search  after  truth,  was  compelled 
to  be  somewhat  inconsistent  with  itself.  It  enjoined 
self-conquest,  self-restraint,  self-concentration,  and  separ- 
ation from  the  world  for  the  attainment  of  true  know- 
ledge and  for  the  accomplishment  of  its  own  summum 
honum — the  bliss  of  Nirvana — the  bliss  of  deliverance 
from  the  fires  of  passion  and  the  flames  of  concupiscence. 
Yet  it  encouraged  association  and  combination  for 
mutual  help.  It  estabhshed  a  universal  brotherhood 
of  celibate  monks,  open  to  persons  of  all  castes  and 
ranks,  to  rich  and  poor,  learned  and  unlearned  alike 
— a  community  of  men  which  might,  in   theory,  be 


224  MYSTICAL   BUDDHISM. 

co-extensive  with  the  whole  world — all  bound  together 
by  the  common  aim  of  self-conquest,  all  animated  by 
the  wish  to  aid  each  other  in  the  battle  with  carnal 
desires,  all  penetrated  by  a  desire  to  follow  the  example 
of  the  Buddha,  and  be  guided  by  the  doctrine  or  law 
which  he  promulgated. 

Coenobitic  monasticism  in  fact,  as  we  have  already 
pointed  out,  became  an  essential  part  of  true  Buddhism 
and  a  necessary  instrument  for  its  propagation. 

In  all  this  the  Buddha  showed  himself  to  be  emi- 
nently practical  in  his  methods  and  profoundly  wise 
in  his  generation.  Evidently,  too,  he  was  wise  in 
abstaining  at  first  from  all  mystical  teaching.  Origin- 
ally Buddhism  set  its  face  against  all  solitary  asceti- 
cism and  all  secret  efforts  to  attain  sublime  heights 
of  knowledge.  It  had  no  occult,  no  esoteric  system  of 
doctrine  which  it  withheld  from  ordinary  men. 

Nor  did  true  Buddhism  at  first  concern  itself  with 
any  form  of  philosophical  or  metaphysical  teaching, 
which  it  did  not  consider  helpful  for  the  attainment 
of  the  only  kind  of  true  knowledge  worth  striving 
for — the  knowledge  of  the  origin  of  suffering  and  its 
remedy — the  knowledge  that  suffering  and  pain  arise 
from  indulging  lusts,  and  that  life  is  inseparable  from 
suffering,  and  is  an  evil  to  be  got  rid  of  by  suppressing 
self  and  extinguishing  desires. 

In  the  Mahil-parinibbana-sutta  (Rhys  Davids,  II.  32) 
is  recorded  one  of  the  Buddha's  remarks  shortly  before 
his  decease  : — 

'  What,  0  Ananda,  does  the  Order  desire  of  me  ? 
I  have  taught  the  law  (desito  dliammo)  without  making 


NO    ESOTERIC   DOCTRINES   IN   TRUE    BUDDHISM.      225 

any  distinction  between  esoteric  and  exoteric  doctrine 
(anantaram  abahiram  karitva).  In  the  matter  of  the 
law,  the  Tathagata  (i.e.  the  Buddha)  has  never  had 
the  closed  fist  of  a  teacher  (acariya-mutthi) — of  a  teacher 
who  withholds  some  doctrines  and  communicates  others.' 
In  short,  he  was  opposed  to  mysticism. 

Nevertheless,  admitting,  as  we  must,  that  early 
Buddhism  had  no  mysteries  reserved  for  a  privileged 
circle,  we  must  not  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that  the 
great  importance  attached  to  abstract  meditation  in 
the  Buddhist  system  could  not  fail  in  the  end  to  en- 
courage the  growth  of  mystical  ideas. 

Furthermore,  it  is  undeniable  that  such  ideas  were, 
in  some  countries,  carried  to  the  most  extravagant 
extremes.  Efforts  to  induce  a  trance-hke  or  hypnotic 
condition,  by  abstracting  the  thoughts  from  all  bodily 
influences,  by  recitation  of  mystical  sentences,  and  by 
superstitious  devices  for  the  acquisition  of  supernatural 
faculties,  were  placed  above  good  works  and  all  the 
duties  of  the  moral  code. 

We  might  point,  too,  to  the  strange  doctrine  which 
arose  in  Nepal  and  Tibet — the  doctrine  of  the  Dhyani- 
Buddhas  (or  '  Buddhas  of  Meditation') — certain  abstract 
Essences  existing  in  the  formless  worlds  of  thought, 
who  were  held  to  be  ethereal  and  eternal  representa- 
tives of  the  transitory  earthly  Buddhas.  These  have 
been  adverted  to  in  a  previous  Lecture  (see  p.  202). 

Our  present  concern  is  rather  with  the  growth 
and  development  of  mystical  Buddhism  in  India  itself, 
through  its  connexion  with  the  system  of  philosophy 
called  Yoga  and  Yogacara. 

Q 


2  26  MYSTICAL   BUDDHISM. 

The  close  relationship  of  Buddhism  to  that  system  is 
well  known  ;  but  the  various  practices  included  under 
the  name  Yoga  did  not  owe  their  origin  to  Buddhism. 
They  were  prevalent  in  India  before  Gautama  Buddha's 
time  ;  and  one  of  the  most  generally  accepted  facts 
in  his  biography  is  that,  after  abandoning  his  home 
and  worldly  associations,  he  resorted  to  certain  Brahman 
ascetics,  who  were  practising  Yoga. 

What  then  was  the  object  which  these  ascetics  had 
in  view  1 

The  word  Yoga  literally  means  '  union '  (as  derived 
from  the  Sanskrit  root  'yuj,'  to  join;  compare  the 
English  word  '  yoke '),  and  the  proper  aim  of  every 
man  who  practised  Yoga  was  the  mystic  union  (or 
rather  re-union)  of  his  own  spirit  with  the  one  eternal 
Soul  or  Spirit  of  the  Universe.  A  true  Yogi,  says  the 
Bhagavad-gita  (VI.  13,  25),  should  be  indifferent  to  all 
earthly  things.  To  him  a  clod,  a  stone,  and  gold 
should  be  all  alike. 

Doubtless  this  was  the  Buddha's  first  aim  when  he 
addressed  himself  to  Yoga  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  and 
even  to  this  hour,  earnest  men  in  India  resort  to  this 
system  with  the  same  object. 

In  the  Indian  Magazine  for  July,  1887  (as  well  as 
in  my  'Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  529),  is  a  short 
biography  of  a  quite  recent  religious  reformer  named 
Svami  Dayananda-Sarasvati,  whose  acquaintance  I  made 
at  Bombay  in  1876  and  1877,  and  who  only  died  in 
1 883.  The  story  of  his  life  reads  almost  like  a  repetition 
of  the  life  of  Buddha,  thouo^h  his  teachino-  aimed  at  re- 
storing  the  supposed  monotheistic  doctrine  of  the  Veda. 


DAYANANDA-SAEASVATI  AND  THE  YOGA.     227 

It  is  recorded  that  his  father,  desiring  to  initiate 
him  into  the  mysteries  of  Saivism,  took  him  to  a 
shrine  dedicated  to  the  god  Siva ;  but  the  sight  of 
some  mice  steahng  the  consecrated  offerings,  and  of 
some  rats  playing  on  the  heads  of  the  idol,  led  liim 
to  disbelieve  in  Siva-worship  as  a  means  of  union  with 
the  Supreme  Being.  Longing,  however,  for  such 
union  and  for  emancipation  from  the  burden  of  re- 
peated births,  he  resolved  to  renounce  marriage  and 
abandon  the  world.  Accordingly,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two,  he  clandestinely  quitted  his  home,  the  darkness 
of  evening  covering  his  flight.  Taking  a  secret  path, 
he  travelled  thirty  miles  during  the  night.  Next  day 
he  was  pursued  by  his  father,  who  tried  to  force  him 
to  return,  but  in  vain.  After  travelling  farther  and 
farther  from  his  native  province,  he  took  a  vow  to 
devote  himself  to  the  investiofation  of  truth.  Then 
he  wandered  for  many  years  all  over  India,  trying  to 
gain  knowledge  from  sages  and  philosophers,  but  with- 
out any  satisfactory  result,  till  finally  he  settled  at 
Ahmedabad.  There,  having  mastered  the  higher  Yoga 
system,  he  became  the  leader  of  a  new  sect  called 
the  Arya-Samaj. 

And  here  we  may  observe  that  the  expression  '  higher 
Yoga '  implies  that  a  lower  form  of  that  system  had  been 
introduced.  In  point  of  fact,  the  Yoga  system  grew, 
and  became  twofold — that  is,  it  came  in  the  end  to 
have  two  objects. 

The  earlier  was  the  hig-her  Yog-a.  It  aimed  onlv 
at  union  with  the  Spirit  of  the  Universe.  The  more 
develoj)ed  system  aimed  at  something  more.     It  sought 

Q  2 


2  28  MYSTICAL   BUDDHISM. 

to  acquire  miraculous  powers  by  bringing  the  body 
under  control  of  the  will,  and  by  completely  abstracting 
the  soul  from  body  and  mind,  and  isolating  it  in  its 
own  essence.     This  condition  is  called  Kaivalya. 

In  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  when  Gautama  Buddha 
began  his  career,  the  later  and  lower  form  of  Yoga 
seems  to  have  been  little  known.  Practically,  in  those 
days,  earnest  and  devout  men  craved  only  for  union 
with  the  Supreme  Being,  and  absorption  into  his  Essence. 
Many  methods  of  effecting  such  union  and  absorption 
were  contrived.  And  these  may  be  classed  under  two 
chief  heads — bodily  mortification  (tapas)  and  abstract 
meditation  (dhyana). 

By  either  one  of  these  two  chief  means,  the  devotee 
was  supposed  to  be  able  to  get  rid  of  all  bodily  fetters 
— to  be  able  to  bring  his  bodily  organs  into  such  sub- 
jection to  the  spiritual  that  he  became  unconscious  of 
possessing  any  body  at  all.  It  was  in  this  way  that 
his  spirit  became  fit  for  blending  with  the  Universal 
Spirit,  of  w^iich  it  was  originally  a  part. 

We  learn  from  the  Lalita-vistara  that  various  forms 
of  bodily  torture,  self-maceration,  and  austerity  were 
common  in  Gautama's  time. 

Some  devotees,  we  read,  seated  themselves  in  one 
spot  and  kept  perpetual  silence,  with  their  legs  bent 
under  them.  Some  ate  only  once  a  day  or  once  on 
alternate  days,  or  at  intervals  of  four,  six,  or  four- 
teen days.  Some  slept  in  wet  clothes  or  on  ashes, 
gravel,  stones,  boards,  thorny  grass,  or  spikes,  or 
with  the  face  downwards.  Some  went  naked,  making 
no    distinction    between   fit    or    unfit    places.       Some 


BODILY  TORTURES  OF  YOGIS.  229 

smeared  themselves  with  ashes,  cinders,  dust,  or  clay. 
Some  inhaled  smoke  and  fire.  Some  gazed  at  the  sun, 
or  sat  surrounded  by  five  fires,  or  rested  on  one  foot, 
or  kept  one  arm  perpetually  uplifted,  or  moved  about 
on  their  knees  instead  of  on  their  feet,  or  baked  them- 
selves on  hot  stones,  or  submerged  themselves  in  water, 
or  suspended  themselves  in  air. 

Then,  again,  a  method  of  fasting  called  very  painful 
(atikridchra),  described  by  Manu  (XI.  213),  was  often 
practised.  It  consisted  in  eating  only  a  single  mouthful 
every  day  for  nine  days,  and  then  abstaining  from  all 
food  for  the  three  following  days. 

Another  method,  called  the  lunar  fast  (VI.  20,  XI. 
2 1 6),  consisted  in  beginning  with  fifteen  mouthfuls  at 
full  moon,  and  reducing  the  quantity  by  one  mouthful 
till  new  moon,  and  then  increasing  it  again  in  the  same 
way  till  full  moon. 

Passages  without  number  might  be  quoted  from 
ancient  literature  to  prove  that  similar  practices  were 
resorted  to  throughout  India,  with  the  object  of  bring- 
ing the  body  into  subjection  to  the  spirit.  And  these 
practices  have  continued  up  to  the  present  day. 

A  Muhammadan  traveller,  whose  narrative  is  quoted 
by  Mr.  Mill  (British  India,  i.  355),  once  saw  a  man 
standing  motionless  with  his  face  towards  the  sun. 

The  same  traveller,  having  occasion  to  revisit  the 
same  spot  sixteen  years  afterwards,  found  the  very 
same  man  in  the  very  same  attitude.  He  had  gazed 
on  the  sun's  disk  till  all  sense  of  external  vision  was 
extinguished. 

A  Yog]  was  seen  not  very  long  ago  (Mill's  India, 


230  MYSTICAL   BUDDHISM. 

i.  353)  seated  between  four  fires  on  a  quadrangular 
stage.  He  stood  on  one  leg  gazing  at  the  sun,  while 
these  fires  were  lighted  at  the  four  coruers.  Then 
placing  himself  upright  on  his  head,  with  his  feet 
elevated  in  the  air,  he  remained  for  three  hours  in  that 
position.  He  then  seated  himself  cross-legged,  and 
continued  bearing  the  raging  heat  of  the  sun  above  his 
head  and  the  fires  which  surrounded  him,  till  the  end 
of  the  day,  occasionally  adding  combustibles  with  his 
own  hands  to  increase  the  flames. 

I,  myself,  in  the  course  of  my  travels,  encountered 
Yogis  who  had  kept  their  arms  uplifted  for  years,  or 
had  wandered  about  from  one  place  of  pilgrimage  to 
another  under  a  perpetual  vow  of  silence,  or  had  no 
place  to  lie  upon  but  a  bed  of  spikes. 

As  to  fasting,  the  idea  that  attenuation  of  the  body 
by  abstinence  from  food  facilitates  union  of  the  human 
soul  with  the  divine,  or  at  any  rate  promotes  a  keener 
insight  into  spiritual  things,  is  doubtless  as  common  in 
Europe  as  in  Asia  ;  but  the  most  austere  observer  of 
Lent  in  European  countries  would  be  hopelessly  out- 
done by  devotees  whose  extraordinary  powers  of  ab- 
stinence may  be  witnessed  in  every  part  of  India. 

If  we  now  turn  to  the  second  method  of  attaining 
mystic  union  with  the  Divine  Essence,  namely,  by 
profound  abstract  thought,  we  may  observe  that  it,  too, 
was  everywhere  prevalent  in  Buddha's  time. 

Indeed,  one  of  the  names  given  by  Indian  philo- 
sophers to  the  One  Universal  Spirit  is  Cit,  '  Thought,' 
By  that  name,  of  course,  is  meant  pure  abstract  thought, 
or  the  faculty  of  thought  separated   from  every  con- 


COMPLETE    ABSORPTION   IN   THOUGHT.  23 1 

Crete  object.  Hence,  in  its  highest  state  the  eternal 
infinite  Spirit,  by  its  very  nature,  thinks  of  nothing. 
It  is  the  simple  thought-faculty,  wholly  unconnected 
with  any  object  about  which  it  thinks.  In  point  of 
fact,  the  moment  it  begins  to  exercise  this  faculty,  it 
necessarily  abandons  for  a  time  its  condition  of  absolute 
oneness,  abstraction,  and  isolation,  to  associate  itself 
with  something  inferior,  which  is  not  itself. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  intense  concentration  of 
the  mind  on  the  One  Universal  Spirit  amounts  to  fixing 
the  thought  on  a  mere  abstract  Essence,  which  re- 
ciprocates no  thought  in  return,  and  is  not  conscious 
of  being  thought  about  by  its  worshipper. 

In  harmony  with  this  theory,  we  find  that  the  defi- 
nition of  Yoga,  in  the  second  aphorism  of  the  Yoga- 
sutra,  is,  '  the  suppression  (nirodha)  of  the  functions  or 
modifications  (vritti)  of  the  thinking  principle  (citta).' 
So  that,  in  reality,  the  union  of  the  human  mind  with 
the  infinite  Principle  of  thought  amounts  to  such  com- 
plete mental  absorption,  that  thought  itself  becomes 
lost  in  pure  thought. 

In  the  Sakuntala  (YII.  175)  there  is  a  description  of 
an  ascetic  engaged  in  this  form  of  Yoga,  whose  con- 
dition of  fixed  meditation  and  immovable  impassiveness 
had  lasted  so  long  that  ants  had  thrown  up  a  mound 
as  high  as  his  waist,  and  birds  had  built  their  nests  in 
the  long  clotted  tresses  of  his  tangled  hair. 

Not  many  years  ago,  I,  myself,  saw  at  Allahabad 
near  the  fort  a  devotee  who  had  maintained  a  sitting, 
contemplative  posture,  with  his  feet  folded  ^mder  his 
body,  in  one  place  for  twenty  years.    During  the  Mutiny 


232  MYSTICAL   BUDDHISM. 

cannon  thundered  over  his  head,  and  bullets  hissed 
around  him,  but  nothing  apparently  disturbed  his  atti- 
tude of  profound  meditation.  Even  Muhammadans 
practise  the  same.  The  Kussian  correspondent  of  the 
Times  states  (Sept.  18,  1888)  that  he  saw  in  a  mosque 
at  Samarkand  men  who  voluntarily  remained  mute 
and  motionless  for  forty  days.  On  a  curtain  being 
pulled  aside  he  beheld  a  motionless  figure  seated  in 
profound  meditation  like  a  squatting  mummy.  The 
guide  said  that  a  cannon  fired  off  in  front  of  his  face 
would  have  left  him  equally  unmoved. 

It  is  clear,  then,  that,  supposing  Gautama  to  have 
made  up  his  mind  to  devote  himself  to  a  religious 
life,  his  adoption  of  a  course  of  profound  meditation 
was  a  most  usual  proceeding. 

A  large  number  of  the  images  of  Buddha  represent 
him  sitting  on  a  raised  seat  or  throne  (called  the  Bodhi- 
manda),  with  his  legs  folded  under  his  body,  and  his 
eyes  half-closed,  in  a  condition  of  abstraction  (samadhi) 
• — sometimes  called  Yoga-nidra ;  that  is,  a  trance-like 
state,  resembling  profound  sleep.  (Compare  frontispiece.) 

He  is  said  to  have  seated  himself  in  this  way  under 
four  trees  in  succession  (see  p.  39  of  these  Lectures), 
namely,  under  the  Bodhi-tree  or  sacred  fig-tree,  under 
the  Banyan-tree,  under  the  Mucalinda-tree  (protected 
by  the  serpent),  and  under  the  Kajayatana-tree. 

And  those  four  successive  seats  probably  symbolized 
the    four  recognized    stages   of  meditation  ^   (dhyana) 

^  I  give  this  as  my  own  theory.  I  am  no  believer  in  the  learned 
M.  Senart's  sun  theory,  or  in  its  applicability  to  this  point. 


HIGHER   AND    HIGHER  STAGES    OF   MEDITATION.    233 

rising  one  above  the  other,  till  thought  itself  was  con- 
verted into  non-thought  (see  p.  209). 

We  know,  too,  that  the  Buddha  went  through  still 
higher  progressive  stages  of  meditation  at  the  moment 
of  his  death  or  final  decease  (Pari-nirvana),  thus  de- 
scribed in  the  Maha-parinibbana-sutta  (Davids,  VI.  11): 

'  Then  the  Venerable  One  entered  into  the  first  stage 
of  meditation  (pathamajjhanam)  ;  and  rising  out  of  the 
first  stage,  he  passed  into  the  second  ;  and  rising  out 
of  the  second,  he  passed  into  the  third  ;  and  rising  out 
of  the  third,  he  passed  into  the  fourth  ;  and  rising 
out  of  the  fourth  stage,  he  attained  the  conception  of 
the  infinity  of  space  (akasanaficayatanam,  see  p.  214)  ; 
and  rising  out  of  the  conception  of  the  infinity  of 
space,  he  attained  the  conception  of  the  infinity  of 
intelligence  (viniianancayatanam) ;  and  rising  out  of  the 
idea  of  the  infinitv  of  intellioence,  he  attained  the 
conception  of  absolute  nonentity  (akincaiiuayatanam) ; 
and  rising  out  of  the  idea  of  nonentity,  he  entered  the 
region  where  there  is  neither  consciousness  nor  un- 
consciousness ;  and  rising  out  of  that  region,  he  entered 
the  state  in  which  all  sensation  and  perception  of  ideas 
had  wholly  ceased.'     (See  p.  213  of  these  Lectures.) 

Clearly,  even  four  progressive  stages  of  abstraction 
did  not  satisfy  the  requirements  of  later  Buddhism  in 
regard  to  the  intense  sublimation  of  the  thinking 
faculty  needed  for  the  complete  effacement  of  all  sense 
of  mdividuality.  Higher  and  higher  altitudes  had  to 
be  reached,  insomuch  that  the  fourth  stage  of  abstract 
meditation  is  sometimes  divided  and  subdivided  into 
what  are  called  eight  Vimokhas  and  eight  Samapattis 


2  34  MYSTICAL   BUDDHISM. 

— all  of  tliem  forms  and  stages  of  ecstatic  medita- 
tion ^ 

A  general  name,  however,  for  all  the  higher  trance- 
like states  is  Samddhi,  and  by  the  practice  of  Samadhi 
the  six  transcendent  faculties  (Abhinna)  might  ulti- 
mately be  obtained,  viz.  the  inner  ear,  or  power  of 
hearing  words  and  sounds,  however  distant  (clair-audi- 
ence,  as  it  might  be  called)  ;  the  inner  eye,  or  power  of 
seeing  all  that  happens  in  every  part  of  the  world 
(clair-voyance) ;  knowledge  of  the  thoughts  of  others  ; 
recollection  of  former  existences  ;  the  knowledge  of  the 
mode  of  destroying  the  corrupting  influences  of  passion  ; 
and,  finally,  the  supernatural  powers  called  Iddhi,  to 
be  subsequently  explained. 

But  to  return  to  the  Buddha's  first  course  of  medi- 
tation at  the  time  when  he  first  attained  Buddhahood. 
This  happened  during  one  particular  night,  which  was 
followed  by  the  birthday  of  Buddhism. 

And  what  was  the  first  grand  outcome  of  that  first 
profound  mental  abstraction?  One  legend  relates  that 
in  the  first  watch  of  the  night  all  his  previous  existences 
flashed  across  his  mind ;  in  the  second  he  understood 
all  present  states  of  being  ;  in  the  third  he  traced  out 
the  chain  of  causes  and  efifects,  and  at  the  dawn  of  day 
he  knew  all  things. 

According  to  another  legend,  there  was  an  actual 
outburst  of  the  divine  light  before  hidden  within  him. 

We  read  in  the  Lalita-vistara  (chap,  i)  that  at  the 
supreme  moment  of  his  intellectual  illumination  bril- 
liant flames  of  light  issued  from  the  crown  of  his  head, 

^  These  are  described  in  Childers's  Pali  Dictionary,  s.v. 


THE    BUDDHA    NO    SPIRITUALIST.  235 

through  the  interstices  of  his  cropped  hair.  These 
rays  are  sometimes  represented  in  his  images,  emerging 
from  his  skull  in  a  form  resembling  the  five  fingers  of 
an  extended  hand  (see  the  frontispiece). 

Mark,  however,  that  Gautama's  meditation  never 
led  him  to  the  highest  result  of  the  true  Yoga  of 
Indian  philosophy — union  with  the  Supreme  Spirit. 
On  the  contrary,  his  self-enlightenment  led  to  entire 
disbelief  in  the  separate  existence  of  any  eternal,  in- 
finite Spirit  at  all — any  Spirit,  in  fact,  with  which  a 
spirit  existing  in  his  own  body  could  blend,  or  into 
which  it  could  be  absorbed. 

If  the  Buddha  was  not  a  materialist,  in  the  sense  of 
believing  in  the  eternal  existence  of  material  atoms, 
neither  could  he  in  any  sense  be  called  a  '  spiritualist,' 
or  believer  in  the  eternal  existence  of  abstract  spirit. 

With  him  Creation  did  not  proceed  from  an  Omni- 
potent Spirit  or  Mind  evolving  phenomena  out  of  itself 
by  the  exercise  of  will,  nor  from  an  eternal  self- 
existing,  self-evolving  germ  of  any  kind.  As  to  the 
existence  in  the  Universe  of  any  spiritual  substance 
which  was  not  matter  and  was  imperceptible  by  the 
senses,  it  could  not  be  proved. 

Nor  did  he  believe  in  the  eternal  existence  of  an 
invisible  Self  or  Ego,  called  Soul,  distinct  from  a 
material  body.  The  only  eternity  of  true  Buddhism 
was  an  eternity  of  '  becoming,'  not  of  '  being'  —  an 
eternity  of  existences,  all  succeeding  each  other,  and 
all  lapsing  into  nothingness.  If  there  were  any 
personal  gods  they  were  all  inferior  to  the  perfect  man, 
and  all  liable  to  change  and  dissolution. 


236  MYSTICAL   BUDDHISM. 

In  brief,  the  Buddha's  enlightenment  consisted,  first, 
in  the  discovery  of  the  origin  and  remedy  of  suffering, 
and,  next,  in  the  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  an 
eternal  Force — a  force  generated  by  what  in  Sanskrit 
is  called  Karman,  '  Act.'  The  accumulated  force  of  the 
acts  of  one  Universe  produced  another. 

Every  man,  therefore,  was  created  by  the  force  of 
his  own  acts  in  former  bodies,  combined  with  a  force 
generated  by  intense  attachment  to  existence  (upadana). 
Who  or  what  started  the  first  act,  the  Buddha  never 
pretended  to  be  able  to  explain.  He  confessed  himself 
in  regard  to  this  point  a  downright  Agnostic.  The 
Buddha  himself  had  been  created  by  his  own  acts, 
and  had  been  created  and  re-created  through  countless 
bodily  forms ;  but  he  had  no  spirit  or  soul  existing 
separately  between  the  intervals  of  each  creation.  By 
his  protracted  meditation  he  attained  to  no  higher 
knowledge  than  this,  and  although  he  himself  rose  to 
loftier  heights  of  knowledge  than  any  other  man  of 
his  day,  he  never  aspired  to  other  faculties  than  were 
within  the  reach  of  any  human  being  capable  of  rising 
to  the  same  sublime  abstraction  of  mind. 

He  was  even  careful  to  lay  down  a  precept  that  the 
acquisition  of  transcendent  human  faculties  was  re- 
stricted to  the  perfected  saints  called  Arhats ;  and  so 
important  did  he  consider  it  to  guard  such  faculties 
from  being  claimed  by  mere  impostors,  that  one  of  the 
four  prohibitions  communicated  to  all  monks  on  first 
admission  to  his  monastic  Order  was  that  they  were 
not  to  pretend  to  such  powers  (see  p.  81). 

Nor  is  there  any  proof  that  even  Arhats  in  Gautama's 


ATTAINMENT    OF   MIRACULOUS    POWERS.  237 

time  were  allowed  to  claim  sujperliuman  faculties  and 
the  power  of  working  physical  miracles. 

By  degrees,  no  doubt,  powers  of  this  kind  were 
ascribed  to  them  as  well  as  to  the  Buddha.  Even  in 
the  Vinaya,  one  of  the  oldest  portions  of  the  Tri-pitaka, 
we  find  it  stated  (Maha-vagga  I.  20,  24)  that  Gau- 
tama Buddha  gained  adherents  by  performing  three 
thousand  five  hundred  supernatural  wonders  (Pali,  pati- 
hariya  ;  see  p.  46).  These  were  thought  to  be  evidences 
of  his  mission  as  a  great  teacher  and  saviour  of  man- 
kind ;  but  the  part  of  the  narrative  recording  these, 
although  very  ancient,  is  probably  a  legendary  addition. 

It  is  interesting,  however,  to  trace  in  portions  of 
the  early  literature,  the  development  of  the  doctrine 
that  Buddhahood  meant  first  transcendent  knowledge, 
and  then  supernatural  faculties  and  the  power  of  work- 
ing miracles. 

In  the  Akankheyya-sutta  (said  to  have  been  composed 
in  the  fourth  century  B.C.)  occurs  a  remarkable  passage, 
translated  by  Prof.  Rhys  Davids  (S.  B.  E.,  p.  214)  : — 

'  If  a  monk  should  desire  through  the  destruction  of 

o 

the  corrupting  infiuences  (asavas),  by  himself,  and  even 
in  this  very  world,  to  know  and  realise  and  attain  to 
Arhatship,  to  emancipation  of  heart,  and  emancipation 
of  mind,  let  him  devote  himself  to  that  quietude  of 
heart  which  springs  from  within,  let  him  not  drive  back 
the  ecstasy  of  contemplation,  let  him  look  through 
things,  let  him  be  much  alone. 

'  If  a  monk  should  desire  to  hear  with  clear  and 
heavenly  ear,  surpassing  that  of  men,  sounds  both 
human  and  celestial,  whether  far  or  near ;  if  he  should 


238  MYSTICAL   BUDDHISM. 

desire  to  comprehend  by  his  own  heart  the  hearts  of 
other  beings  and  of  other  men ;  if  he  should  desire  to 
call  to  mind  his  various  temporary  states  in  the  past, 
such  as  one,  two,  three,  four,  five,  ten,  twenty,  a  hundred, 
a  thousand,  a  hundred  thousand  births,  or  his  births  in 
manv  an  age  and  seon  of  destruction  and  renovation,  let 
him  devote  himself  to  that  quietude  which  springs  from 
within.' 

Then,  in  the  Maha-parinibbana-sutta  (I.  2)3,  Ehys 
Davids)  occurs  the  following : — 

'At  that  time  the  blessed  One — as  instantaneously 
as  a  strong  man  would  stretch  forth  his  arm,  or  draw  it 
back  again  when  he  had  stretched  it  forth — vanished 
from  this  side  of  the  river,  and  stood  on  the  further 
bank  with  the  company  of  the  brethren.' 

And,  again,  the  following: — 

'  I  call  to  mind,  Ananda,  how  when  I  used  to  enter 
into  an  assembly  of  many  hundred  nobles,  before  I  had 
seated  myself  there,  or  talked  to  them,  or  started  a 
conversation  with  them,  I  used  to  become  in  colour  like 
unto  their  colour,  and  in  voice  like  unto  their  voice. 
Then,  with  religic^s  discourse,  I  used  to  instruct,  incite, 
and  quicken  them,  and  fill  them  wdth  gladness.  But 
they  knew  me  not  when  I  spoke,  and  would  say,  "  Who 
may  this  be  who  thus  speaks  1  a  man  or  a  god  1 "  Then, 
having  instructed,  incited,  quickened,  and  gladdened 
them  with  religious  discourse,  I  would  vanish  away. 
But  they  knew  me  not  even  when  I  vanished  away  ; 
and  would  say,  "  Who  may  this  be  who  has  thus  vanished 
away  1  a  man,  or  a  god  ?  "  ' — (Maha-parinibbana-sutta 
III.  22,  Rhys  Davids.) 


EIGHT    REQUISITES    OF   YOGA.  239 

Such  passages  in  the  early  literature  afford  an  interest- 
ing exemplification  of  the  growth  of  supernatural  and 
mystical  ideas,  which  led  to  the  ultimate  association  of 
the  Buddhistic  system  with  Saivism,  demonology,  magic, 
and  various  so-called  spiritual  phenomena. 

I  now  proceed  to  show  that  the  development  of  these 
ideas  in  Buddhism  resulted  from  its  connexion  with 
the  later  Yoga,  which  developed  similar  ideas. 

In  the  aphorisms  of  this  later  Yoga,  composed  by 
Patanjali,  eight  chief  requisites  are  enumerated  (II. 
29)  ;  namely,  t.  abstaining  from  five  evil  acts  (yama) ; 
2.  performing  five  positive  duties  (niyama) ;  3.  settling 
the  limbs  in  certain  postures  (asana) ;  4.  regulating  and 
suppressing  the  breath  (pranayama)  ;  5.  withdrawing  the 
senses  from  their  objects  (pratyahara) ;  6. fixing  the  think- 
ing faculty  (dharana)  ;  7.  internal  self-contemplation 
(dhyana)  ;  8.  trance-like  self-concentration  (samadhi). 

These  eight  are  indispensable  requisites  for  the  gain- 
ing of  Patanjali's  summum  honum — the  complete  ab- 
straction or  isolation  (kaivalya)  of  the  soul  or  spirit  in  its 
own  essence^and  for  the  acquirement  of  supernatural 
faculties.  r^ 

Taking  now  these  eight  requisites  of  Yoga  in  order, 
we  may  observe,  with  regard  to  the  first,  that  the  five 
evil  acts  to  be  avoided  correspond  to  the  five  command- 
ments in  Buddhism,  viz.  '  kill  not,'  '  steal  not,'  '  commit 
no  impurity,'  '  lie  not.'  The  fifth  alone — '  abstain  from 
all  worldly  enjoyments' — is  different,  the  Buddhist  fifth 
prohibition  being  '  drink  no  strong  drink'  (p.  126). 

With  regard  to  the  second  requisite,  the  five  positive 
duties  are — self-purification,  both  external  and  internal 


240  MYSTICAL    BUDDHISM. 

(both  called  sauca) ;  the  practice  of  contentment  (sam- 
tosha) ;  bodily  mortification  (tapas)  ;  muttering  of 
prayers,  or  repetition  of  mystical  syllables  (svadhyaya, 
or  japa),  and  contemplation  of  the  Supreme  Being. 

The  various  processes  of  bodily  mortification  already 
described  (see  p.  228)  were  repudiated  by  Buddhism. 

As  to  the  muttering  of  prayers,  the  repetition  of 
mystic  syllables  such  as  Om  (a  symbol  for  the  Triad  of 
gods),  or  of  any  favourite  deity's  name,  is  held  among 
Hindus  to  be  highly  efficacious  ^  In  a  similar  manner 
among  Tibetan  Buddhists  the  six-syllabled  sentence: 
'  Om  mani  padme  Hum ' — '  Om  !  the  jewel  in  the 
lotus  !  Hum  ! ' — is  used  as  a  charm  ao:ainst  the  sixfold 
course  of  transmigration  (see  pp.  121,  c,1'^~Z7o)- 

Mystical  syllables  are  very  common.  Sir  A.  Cunning- 
ham gives  the  following  as  current  in  Ladak  : — Bhyo, 
Eakmo-bhyo !  Kakmo-bhyo-bhyo  !  Eu-lu,  Bu-lu,  Hum 
Bhyo  Hum  !    (Ladak,  386.) 

Other  mystical  syllables  (such  as  Sam,  Yam,  Bam, 
Lam,  etc.)  are  supposed  to  contain  some  occult  virtue. 

The  third  requisite — posture — would  apj)ear  to  us  a 
somewhat  trivial  aid  to  the  union  of  the  human  spirit 
with  the  divine  ;  but  with  Hindus  it  is  an  important 
auxiliary,  fraught  with  great  benefit  to  the  Yogi. 

The  alleged  reason  is  that  certain  sitting  postures 
(asana)  and  cramping  of  the  lower  limbs  are  peculiarly 
efficacious  in  producing  bodily  quietude  and  preventing 
restlessness.  Some  of  the  postures  have  curious  names, 
for  example  : — Padmasana,  '  the  lotus  posture  ; '  vira- 

^  See  my  '  Biahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  ji.  105. 


CRAMPING    OF   LIMBS.       SUPPRESSION    OF    BREATH.    24 1 

Sana,  'the  heroic  posture;'  sinhasana,  'the  lion  posture' 
(see  note,  p.  336);  kurmasana,  'tortoise  posture ;'  kukku- 
tasana,  'cock  posture;'  dhanur-asana,  'bow  posture;' 
maytirasana,  '  peacock  posture.'  In  the  first  the  legs 
are  folded  under  the  body  and  the  right  foot  is  placed 
on  the  left  thigh,  and  the  left  on  the  right  thigh. 

In  short,  the  idea  is  that  compression  of  the  lower 
limbs,  in  sucli  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  the 
slightest  movement,  is  most  important  as  a  preparation 
for  complete  abstraction  of  soul. 

Then,  as  another  aid,  particular  mystical  twistings 
(called  mudra)  of  the  upper  limbs — of  the  arms,  hands, 
and  fingers — are  enjoined. 

Even  in  Muhammadan  countries  certain  movements 
of  the  limbs  are  practised  by  devotees  with  the  view 
of  uniting  the  human  spirit  with  the  Divine.  Those  who 
have  seen  the  whirlino;  and  '  howlino- '  dervishes  at  Cairo 
can  testify  that  fainting;  fits  result  from  their  violent 
exertions,  inspirations,  expirations,  and  u.tterances  of  the 
name  of  God,  and  such  fits  are  believed  to  be  ecstatic 
states  of  union  with  the  Deity. 

The  fourth  requisite — regulation  and  suppression  of 
the  breath — is  perhaps  the  one  of  all  the  eight  which 
is  most  difficult  for  Europeans  to  understand  or  appre- 
ciate ;  yet  with  Hindus  it  is  all-important.  It  is  some- 
times called  Hatha-vidya.  Nor  are  the  ideas  connected 
with  it  wholly  unknown  in  Europe. 

According  to  Swedenborg  \  thought  commences  and 
corresponds  with  respiration  : — 

^  Quoted  in  Colonel  Olcott's  '  Yoga  Philosophy,'  p.  282. 

R 


242  MYSTICAL    BUDDHISM. 

*  When  a  man  thinks  quickly  his  breath  vibrates  with 
rapid  alternations ;  when  the  tempest  of  anger  shakes 
his  mind  his  breath  is  tumultuous ;  when  his  soul  is 
deep  and  tranquil,  so  is  his  respiration/  And  he  adds  : 
*  It  is  strange  that  this  correspondence  between  the 
states  of  the  brain  or  mind  and  the  lungs  has  not  been 
admitted  in  science.' 

The  Hindu  belief  certainly  is  that  deep  inspirations 
of  breath  assist  in  concentrating  and  abstracting  the 
thoughts  and  preventing  external  impressions.  But, 
more  than  this,  five  sorts  of  air  are  supposed  to  per- 
meate the  human  body  and  play  an  important  part  in 
its  vitality.  They  are  called  Prana,  Vyana,  Apana, 
Samana,  Udana.  In  the  Chandogya  IJpanishad  (V. 
19,  etc.)  they  are  described  as  if  they  were  divine 
beings  to  be  adored  and  to  be  honoured  by  offerings 
of  food.  The  Hatha-dipika  says :  '  As  long  as  the  air 
remains  in  the  body,  so  long  life  remains.  Death  is 
the  exit  of  the  breath.  Hence  the  air  should  be  re- 
tained in  the  body.' 

In  reo-ulatino;  the  breath,  the  air  must  first  be  drawn 
up  through  one  nostril  (the  other  being  closed  with  the 
finger),  retained  in  the  lungs,  and  then  expelled  through 
the  other  nostril.  This  exercise  must  be  practised 
alternately  with  the  right  and  left  nostril.  Next,  the 
breath  must  be  drawn  forcibly  up  through  both  nostrils, 
and  the  air  imprisoned  for  as  long  a  time  as  possible 
in  the  lungs.  Thence  it  must  be  forced  by  an  eff'ort 
of  will  towards  the  internal  organs  of  the  body,  or 
made  to  mount  to  the  centre  of  the  brain. 

The    Hindus,  however,  do  not    identify  the  breath 


IMPKISONME>iT  OF  BREATH.     SUSPENDED  ANIMATION.  243 

with  the  soul.  They  believe  that  a  crevice  or  suture 
called  the  Brahma-randhram  at  the  top  of  the  skull 
serves  as  an  outlet  for  the  escape  of  the  soul  at  death. 
A  Hindu  Yogi's  skull  is  sometimes  split  at  death  by 
striking  it  with  a  sacred  shell.  The  idea  is  to  facilitate 
the  exit  of  the  soul.  It  is  said  that  in  Tibet  the  hair  is 
torn  out  of  the  top  of  the  head,  with  the  same  object. 

In  the  case  of  a  wicked  man  the  soul  is  supposed  to 
escape  through  one  of  the  lower  openings  of  the  body. 

The  imprisonment  of  the  breath  in  the  body  by 
taking  in  more  air  than  is  necessary  for  respiration,  is 
the  most  important  of  the  breath  exercises.  It  is  said 
that  Hindu  ascetics,  by  constant  practice,  are  able  by 
this  means  to  sustain  life  under  water,  or  to  be  buried 
alive  for  long  periods  of  time.  Many  alleged  feats  of 
suspended  animation  are  of  course  mere  and  sheer 
trickery.  It  seems,  however,  open  to  question,  whether 
it  may  not  be  possible  for  human  beings  of  particular 
constitutions  to  practise  a  kind  of  hibernation  like 
that  of  animals,  or  acquire  some  power  of  suspending 
temporarily  the  organic  functions.  A  certain  Colonel 
Townsend  is  said  to  have  succeeded  in  doing  so. 

A  well-known  instance  of  suspended  animation  oc- 
curred in  the  Panjab  in  1837.  A  Hindu  Yogi  was 
there,  by  his  own  request,  buried  alive  in  a  vault  for 
forty  days  in  the  presence  of  Eunjit  Singh  and  Sir 
Claude  Wade  ;  his  eyes,  ears,  and  every  orifice  of  his 
body  having  been  first  stopped  with  plugs  of  wax. 
Dr.  McGregor,  the  then  residency  surgeon,  also  watched 
the  case.  Every  precaution  was  taken  to  prevent 
deception.     English  officials  saw  the  man  buried,  as 

E  2 


244  MYSTICAL   BUDDHISM. 

well  as  exhumed,  and  a  perpetual  guard  over  the  vault 
was  kept  niglit  and  day  by  order  of  Runjit  Singh 
himself.  At  the  end  of  forty  days  the  disinterment 
took  place.  The  body  was  dried  up  like  a  stick,  and 
the  tongue,  which  had  been  turned  back  into  the 
throat,  had  become  like  a  piece  of  horn.  Those  who 
exhumed  him  followed  his  previously-given  directions 
for  the  restoration  of  animation,  and  the  Yogi  told 
them  he  had  only  been  conscious  of  a  kind  of  ecstatic 
bliss  in  the  society  of  other  Yogis  and  saints,  and  was 
quite  ready  to  be  buried  over  again. 

What  amount  of  fraud  there  mav  be  in  these 
feats  it  is  difficult  to  say.  They  may  possibly  be 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  Indian  Yogis  have  studied 
the  habits  of  hibernatino^  animals  :  but  in  some  cases 
the  secret  introduction  of  food  has  been  detected. 

I  may  add  that  it  is  commonly  believed  throughout 
India  that  a  man  whose  body  is  sublimated  by  intense 
abstract  meditation  never  dies,  in  the  sense  of  under- 
going corruption  and  dissolution.  When  his  supposed 
death  occurs  he  is  held  to  be  in  a  state  of  trance,  which 
may  last  for  centuries,  and  his  body  is,  therefore,  not 
burnt,  but  buried — generally  in  a  sitting  posture — and 
his  tomb  is  called  a  Samadh. 

With  regard  to  the  fifth  requisite — the  act  of  with- 
drawing the  senses  from  their  object,  as,  for  example, 
the  eye  from  visible  forms — this  is  well  compared  to 
the  act  of  a  tortoise  withdrawing  its  limbs  under  its 
shell. 

The  sixth  requisite — fixing  the  principle  of  thought 
— comprises  the  act  of  directing  the  thinking  faculty 


SELF-CONCENTEATION.  EIGHT  SUPEENATURAL  POWERS.  245 

{(jitta)  towards  various  parts  of  tlie  body,  for  example, 
towards  the  heart,  or  towards  the  crown  of  the  head, 
or  concentrating  tlie  will-force  on  the  region  between 
the  two  eyebrows,  or  even  fixing  the  eyes  intently  on 
the  tip  of  the  nose.  (Compare  Bhagavad-gita  VI.  13.) 

The  seventh  and  eighth  requisites — viz.  internal  self- 
contemplation  and  intense  self-concentration — are  held 
(when  coDJoined  with  the  sixth)  to  be  most  important 
as  leading  to  the  acquisition  of  certain  supernatural 
powers,  of  which  the  following  are  most  commonly 
enumerated: — (i)  Animan,  'the  faculty  of  reducing 
the  body  to  the  size  of  an  atom  ; '  (2)  Mahiman,  or 
Gariman,  '  increasing  the  size  or  weight  at  will ; '  (3) 
Laghiman,  '  makiug  the  body  light  at  will ; '  (4)  Prapti, 
'reaching  or  touching  any  object  or  spot,  however 
apparently  distant ;'  (5)  Prakamya,  'unlimited  exercise 
of  will ; '  (6)  Isitva,  '  gaining  absolute  power  over 
one's  self  and  others  ; '  (7)  Yasita,  '  bringing  the  ele- 
ments into  subjection  ; '  (8)  Kamavasayita,  '  the  power 
of  suppressing  all  desires.' 

A  Yogi  who  has  acquired  these  powers  can  rise  aloft 
to  the  skies,  fly  thi'ough  space,  pass  through  the  key- 
hole of  a  door,  pierce  the  mysteries  of  planets  and 
stars,  cause  storms  and  earthquakes,  understand  the 
language  of  animals,  ascertain  what  occurs  in  any  part 
of  the  world,  or  of  the  universe,  recollect  the  events 
of  his  own  previous  lives,  prolong  his  present  life, 
see  into  the  past  and  future,  discern  the  thoughts 
of  others,  assume  any  form  he  likes,  disappear,  reappear, 
and  even  enter  into  another  man's  body  and  make  it 
his  own. 


246  MYSTICAL  BUDDHISM. 

Such  were  some  of  the  extravagant  ideas  which 
grew  with  the  growth  of  the  Yoga  system,  and 
were  incorporated  into  the  later  developments  of  Bud- 
dhism. 

We  learn  from  Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das  that  in  the 
monastery  of  Galdan  in  Tibet  there  is  at  this  moment  a 
college  specially  devoted  to  the  teaching  of  Esoteric 
and  Mystical  Buddhism ;  while  magic  and  sorcery  are 
taught  in  the  monasteries  founded  by  Padma-sambhava 
(see  pp.  272,  274,  441). 

Of  course  it  was  only  natural  that,  with  the  associa- 
tion of  Buddhism  with  the  later  Yoga  and  Saivism, 
the  Buddha  himself  should  have  become  a  centre  for 
the  growth  of  supernatural  and  mystical  ideas. 

Hence  the  Buddha  is  fabled  by  his  followers  to 
have  ascended  to  the  Trayastrinsa  heaven  of  Indra, 
walked  on  water,  stepped  from  one  mountain  to  an- 
other, and  left  impressions  of  his  feet  on  the  solid  rock. 
Although  in  the  Dhamma-pada  it  is  twice  declared 
(254,  255),  'There  is  no  path  through  the  air.' 

Perhaps  the  climax  was  reached  when  the  later 
doctrine  made  every  Buddha  possess  a  threefold  exis- 
tence or  three  bodies,  much  in  the  same  way  as 
in  Hinduism  three  bodies  are  assigned  to  every 
being. 

The  first  of  the  Buddha's  bodies  is  the  Dharma-kaya, 
'  body  of  the  Law,'  supposed  to  be  a  kind  of  ethereal 
essence  of  a  highly  sublimated  nature  and  co-extensive 
with  space.  This  essence  was  believed  to  be  eternal, 
and  after  the  Buddha's  death,  was  represented  by  the 
Law  or  Doctrine  (Dharma)  he  taught.    The  idea  seems 


THEEE   BODIES.  247 

to  have  been  invented  as  an  analogue  to  Brahman,  or 
the  Universal  spiritual  Essence  of  Brahmanism  \ 

The  second  body  is  the  Sambhoga-kaya,  '  body  of 
conscious  bliss,'  which  is  of  a  less  ethereal  and  more 
material  nature  than  the  last.  Its  Brahmanical  ana- 
logue appears  to  be  the  intermediate  body  (belonging 
to  departed  spirits)  called  Bhoga-deha,  which  is  of  an 
ethereal  character,  though  composed  of  suiBciently 
gross  (sthula)  material  particles  to  be  capable  of 
experiencing  happiness  or  misery. 

For  observe  that  it  is  an  essential  part  of  the  Hindu 
doctrine  of  transmigration  or  metempsychosis,  that  a 
soul  without  a  body  is  incapable  of  feeling  either  hap- 
piness in  heaven  or  pain  in  hell. 

The  third  body  is  the  Nirmana-kaya, '  body  of  visible 
shapes  and  transformations,'  that  is  to  say,  those  various 
concrete  material  forms  in  which  every  Buddha  who 
exists  as  an  invisible  and  eternal  essence,  is  manifested 
on  the  earth  or  elsewhere  for  the  propagation  of  the 
true  doctrine. 

The  Brahmanical  analogue  of  this  third  body  appears 
to  be  the  earthly  gross  body,  called  Sthula-sarlra. 

It  is  evident  that  the  extravagances  of  mystical  Bud- 
dhism have  their  counterparts  in  Brahmanism. 

There  is  a  Brahmanical  legend  which  relates  how  the 
great  Brahman  sage  Sankaracarya  entranced  his  gross 
body,  and  then,  having  forced  out  his  soul  along  with 
his  subtle  body,  entered  the  dead  body  of  a  recently 
deceased  king,  which  he  occupied  for  several  weeks. 

^  See  my  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  35. 


248  MYSTICAL    BUDDHISM. 

The  Yoga  of  the  Brahmans,  in  fact,  held  that  adepts, 
skilled  in  occult  science,  might  throw  their  gross 
bodies  into  a  state  of  unconsciousness,  and  by  a  deter- 
mined effort  of  will  project  or  force  out  the  ethereal 
body  through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  and  make  this 
phantasmal  form  visible  in  distant  places  \ 

And  now  it  is  declared  to  be  a  fact  that  a  com- 
munity of  Buddhist  '  Brothers '  called  Mahatmas,  are 
living  at  this  moment  in  the  deserts  of  Tibet,  who, 
having  emancipated  their  interior  selves  from  physical 
bondage  by  profound  abstract  meditation,  have  acquired 
'  astral '  bodies  (distinct  from  their  gross  bodies),  with 
which  they  are  able  to  rise  in  the  air,  or  move  through 
space,  by  the  mere  exercise  of  will. 

Sir  Edwin  Arnold  on  the  other  hand,  in  his  '  India 
Revisited'  (p.  273),  states  that  he  asked  Sri  Weligama 
of  Ceylon  whether  there  existed  anywhere  Mahatmas, 
who  elevated  in  this  way  above  humanity,  possessed 
larger  powers  and  more  profound  insight  than  any 
other  living  philosophers'?  Weligama  answered,  'No! 
such  do  not  exist ;  you  would  seek  them  vainly  in  this 
island,  or  in  Tibet,  or  in  Siam,  or  in  China.  It  is  true,  O 
my  friend,  that  if  we  had  better  interpretations  of  the 
Lord  Buddha's  teachina^,  we  mio-ht  reacli  to  heio-hts  and 
depths  of  power  and  goodness  now  quite  impossible,  but 
we  have  fallen  from  the  old  wisdom,  and  none  of  us 
to-day  are  so  advanced.' 

I  believe  that  the  Psychical  Research  Society  once  sent 

^  Colonel  Olcott  and  Mr.  Sinnett  mention  this  faculty  as  a  peculiar 
characteristic  of  Asiatic  occultism. 


ETHEREAL    SOULS    AND    GROSS    BODIES.  249 

delegates  to  India  who  inqLiired  into  this  subject,  and 
exposed  the  absurdity  of  some  of  the  alleged  phenomena. 

Curiously  in  agreement  with  these  extravagant  no- 
tions are  the  beliefs  of  various  uncivilized  races.  Dr. 
Tylor,  in  his  'Primitive  Culture'  (i.  440),  relates  how 
the  North  American  Indians  and  others  believe  that 
their  souls  quit  their  bodies  during  sleep,  and  go  about 
hunting,  dancing,  visiting,  etc.  It  is  stated  by  Mr. 
Finn,  late  H.  M.  Consul  for  North  Persia,  that  he  never 
could  induce  his  Persian  servants  to  awaken  him  in  the 
morning.  They  gave  as  their  reason  that  the  soul 
during  sleep  wanders  away  from  the  body,  and  that 
a  sleeper  will  die  if  awakened  before  the  soul  has  time 
to  rejoin  the  body.  The  Indian  tribes  in  Central  Brazil 
have  the  same  belief,  so  says  Dr.  Karl  von  den  Steinen 
(recently  quoted  in  the  Times  newspaper). 

Furthermore  it  is  clear  that  the  possibility  of  acquiring 
supernatural  faculties  is  not  an  idea  confined  to  one 
country. 

Old  legends  relate  how  Simon  Magus  made  statues 
walk ;  how  he  flew  in  the  air  ;  how  he  lept  into  the 
fire,  made  bread  of  stones,  changed  his  shape,  assumed 
two  faces,  made  the  vessels  in  a  house  move  of  them- 
selves (Colonel  Yule's  Marco  Polo,  i.  306). 

We  are  told  that  the  phenomena  of  European  spiri- 
tualism are  to  be  kept  distinct  from  those  of  Asiatic 
occultism.  Modern  spiritualism,  it  is  said,  requires 
the  intervention  of  '  mediums,'  who  neither  control  nor 
understand  the  manifestations  of  which  they  are  the 
passive  instruments  ;  whereas  the  phenomena  of  occult- 
ism are  the  '  achievements  of  a  conscious  living  operator,' 


250  MYSTICAL   BUDDHISM. 

produced  on  himself  by  an  effort  of  liis  own  will.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Sinuett,  the  important  point  *  which  oc- 
cultism brings  out  is,  that  the  soul  of  man,  while  some- 
thing enormously  subtler  and  more  ethereal  and  more 
lasting  than  the  body,  is  itself  a  material  body.  The 
ether  that  transmits  light  is  held  to  be  material  by  any 
one  who  holds  it  to  exist  at  all ;  but  there  is  a  gulf  of 
difference  between  it  and  the  thinnest  of  gases.'  In 
another  place  he  advances  an  opinion  that  the  spirit  is 
distinct  from  the  soul.     It  is  the  soul  of  the  soul. 

And  again :  '  The  body  is  the  prison  of  the  soul  for 
ordinary  mortals.  We  can  see  merely  what  comes  before 
its  windows ;  we  can  take  cognisance  only  of  what  is 
brought  within  its  bars.  But  the  adept  has  found  the 
key  of  his  prison,  and  can  emerge  from  it  at  pleasure. 
It  is  no  longer  a  prison  for  him — merely  a  dwelling. 
He  can  project  his  soul  out  of  his  body  to  any  place 
he  pleases  with  the  rapidity  of  thought  \' 

It  is  j)erhaps  worth  noting  that  many  behevers 
in  Asiatic  occultism  hold  that  a  hitherto  unsuspected 
force  exists  in  nature  called  Odic  force  (is  this  to  be 
connected  with  Psychic  force  1),  and  that  it  is  by  this 
that  the  levitation  of  entranced  persons  is  effected. 

Others,  like  the  Yogis,  maintain  that  any  one  may 
lighten  his  body  by  swallowing  large  draughts  of 
air,  and  by  an  effort  of  wiU  forcing  this  air  to  diffuse 
itself  through  every  part  of  the  frame.  It  is  alleged 
that  this  phenomenon  has  been  actually  witnessed. 

The  connexion,  however,  of  similar  phenomena  with 

^  '  The  Occult  World,'  by  A.  P.  Sinnett,  Vice-President  of  the 
Theosophical  Society,  pp.  12,  15,  20. 


MODEEN   ESOTERIC   BUDDHISM   AND    OCCULTISM.    25 1 

feats  of  conjuring  is  undeniable.  In  the  Asiatic  Monthly 
Journal  (March,  1829),  an  account  is  given  of  a  Brahman 
who  poised  himself  aj^parently  in  the  air,  about  four  feet 
from  the  ground,  for  forty  minutes,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Governor  of  Madras.  Another  juggler  sat  on  three  sticks 
put  together  to  form  a  tripod.  These  were  removed, 
one  by  one,  and  the  man  remained  sitting  in  the  air^ 

Long  ago  Friar  Kicold  related  that  '  a  man  from  India 
was  said  to  fly.  The  truth  was  that  he  did  walk  close 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground  without  touching  it,  and 
would  seem  to  sit  down  without  any  substance  to  sup- 
port him '  (Colonel  Yule's  Marco  Polo,  i.  307). 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  contended,  that  '  since  we 
have  attained,  in  the  last  half-century,  the  theory  of 
evolution,  the  antiquity  of  man,  the  far  greater  antiquity 
of  the  world  itself,  the  correlation  of  physical  forces,  the 
conservation  of  energy,  spectrum  analysis,  photography, 
the  locomotive  engine,  electric  telegraph,  spectroscope, 
electric  light,  and  the  telephone  (to  which  we  may  now 
add  the  phonograph),  who  shall  dare  to  fix  a  limit  to 
the  capacity  of  man  ^  1 '  Few  will  deny  altogether  the 
truth  of  such  a  contention,  however  much  they  may 
dissent  from  Colonel  Olcott's  theosophical  views. 

There  may  be,  of  course,  latent  faculties  in  humanity 
which  are  at  present  quite  unsuspected,  and  yet  are 
capable  of  development  in  the  future. 

^  At  a  meeting  of  the  Victoria  Institute,  where  I  repeated  the 
substance  of  the  present  Lecture,  Mr.  W.  S.  Seton-Karr,  who  was 
for  some  time  Foreign  Secretary  at  Calcutta,  stated  that  he  also  had 
witnessed  the  performance  of  this  feat  in  India. 

-  Colonel  Olcott's  '  Lectures  on  Theosophy  and  Archaic  Religions/ 
p.  109. 


252  MYSTICAL   BUDDHISM. 

Accordino;  to  Sir  James  Pao-et,  in  bis  recent  address 
on  '  Scientific  Study,'  many  things,  now  held  to  be  in- 
conceivable and  past  man's  imagination,  are  profoundly 
and  assuredly  true,  and  it  will  be  in  the  power  of 
Science  to  prove  them  to  be  so  ^ 

Most  persons  will  assent  to  these  propositions,  and 
at  the  same  time  agree  with  me  when  I  express  my 
conviction  that  mystical  Buddhism  and  Asiatic  occult- 
ism are  no  more  likely  than  modern  European  spiri- 
tualism, to  bear  the  searching  light  of  true  scientific 
investigation. 

Nevertheless  the  subject  of  mystical  Buddhism  ought 
not  to  be  brushed  aside  as  unworthy  of  consideration. 
It  furnishes,  in  my  opinion,  a  highly  interesting  topic 
of  inquiry,  especially  in  its  bearing  on  the  'neo-Bud- 
dhism,'  and  '  Theosophy '  of  the  present  day.  At  all 
events  it  is  clear  from  what  we  have  advanced  in  the 
present  Lecture,  that  the  practices  connected  with 
spiritualism,  mesmerism,  animal  magnetism,  telepathy, 
clairvoyance,  thought-reading  ^,  etc.,  have  their  counter- 
parts in  the  Yoga  system  prevalent  in  India  more  than 
2,000  years  ago,  and  in  the  practices  of  mystical  Bud- 
dhism prevalent  in  Tibet  and  the  adjacent  countries 
for  many  centuries. 

'  The  thing  that  hath  been,  it  is  that  which  shall  be  ; 
and  that  which  is  done  is  that  which  shall  be  done  : 
and  there  is  no  new  thing  under  the  sun.' 

^  Report  in  the  Times  newspaper. 

^  See  Mr.  Walter  Besant's  recent  interesting  stoiy,  '  Herr  Paulus.' 


LECTURE  XL 

Hierarchical  Buddhism,  especially  as  developed  in 
Tibet  and  Mongolia. 

Eaely  Buddhism  was,  as  we  have  seen,  opposed  to 
all  ecclesiastical  organization.  It  had  no  hierarchy  in 
the  proper  sense  of  that  term — no  church,  no  priests, 
no  true  form  of  prayer,  no  religious  rites,  no  ceremonial 
observances.  It  was  simply  a  Brotherhood  consisting 
of  men  who  had  renounced  all  family  ties,  all  worldly 
desires — even  all  desire  for  life — and  were  pledged  to 
devote  themselves  to  meditation,  recitation  of  the  Law, 
self-restraint,  and  the  accumulation  of  merit,  not  for  the 
sake  of  saving  others,  but  for  their  own  deliverance. 

It  was  on  this  account  that  when  the  Buddha  died 
he  abstained  from  appointing  a  successor,  and  gave  no 
directions  to  his  followers  as  to  any  particular  form  of 
government.  All  that  he  said  was,  '  Hold  fast  to  the 
Law ;  look  not  to  any  one  but  yourselves  as  a  refuge,' 
In  short,  the  Society  (Saiigha)  he  left  behind  was  a 
simple  brotherhood  of  monks  which  claimed  some  kind 
of  corporate  authority  for  the  enforcement  of  discipline, 
but  had  no  Head  except  the  Law.  Nor  did  Buddhism 
for  a  long  time  think  of  contravening  the  last  injunc- 
tions of  its  Founder.  Nor  has  it  ever  attempted  to 
establish  a  universal  hierarchy  under  one  Head  and 
under  one  central  authority,  and  although  the  great 


2  54  HIERARCHICAL    BUDDHISM. 

Kasyapa  as  president  of  the  first  Council  (p.  55)  is 
sometimes  held  to  have  been  the  first  successor  of 
Buddha,  and  Ananda  the  second  (p.  56),  these  men 
never  claimed  any  supremacy  like  that  of  Popes.  In 
point  of  fact  Buddhism  simply  organized  itself  in  sepa- 
rate monastic  institutions  according  to  local  ideas  and 
necessities.  And  indeed  the  exigencies  of  healthy 
growth,  and  even  the  simple  instinct  of  self-preserva- 
tion compelled  the  scattered  members  of  the  Buddhist 
Brotherhood  to  attempt  some  such  organization  very 
soon  after  the  death  of  their  Founder.  In  ancient 
times  communication  was  carried  on  with  difiiculty, 
and  the  Buddhist  Brotherhood  could  only  hold  together 
by  combining  for  mutual  support  in  various  centres, 
and  adopting  some  sort  of  monastic  government. 

It  was  thus  that  every  collection  of  monks  naturally 
tended  to  crystallize  into  a  distinct  organized  society 
with  certain  definite  rules. 

Naturally,  the  earliest  constitution  of  each  was 
moulded  according  to  the  family  pattern.  The  living 
Head  of  every  monastery  was  a  kind  of  spiritual 
father,  wdiile  its  inmates  were  his  children,  and  these, 
again,  resolved  themselves  into  two  classes :  the  first 
consisting  of  the  more  youthful  members  of  the  society; 
the  second,  of  those  whose  more  mature  experience 
entitled  them  to  greater  respect  and  reverence.  Then, 
again,  some  kind  of  pre-eminence  was  assigned  to  indi- 
viduals who  were  remarkable  for  greater  knowledge,  or 
sanctity  of  character. 

It  is  easy  to  understand,  therefore,  how  it  happened 
that  the  Sangha  or  collective  community  of  monks  was 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    HIERARCHICAL   GRADATIONS.      255 

compelled  in  the  end  to  establish  several  gradations  of 
rank  and  position  among  its  members. 

The  following  were  soon  recognized  : — i.  The  Sra- 
manera  or  'novice '  (who  began  by  being  a  Chela  or  'pupil' 
under  education)  ;  2.  The  Sramana  (also  called  Bhikshu) 
or  full  monk ;  3.  The  Sthavira  or  '  elder,'  who  was 
merely  superior  to  others  in  virtue  of  his  age ;  4.  The 
Maha-sthavira  or  '  great  elder '  (sometimes  called  Stha- 
virah  Sthaviranam)  ;  5.  The  Upadhyaya  and  Acarya. 
These  last  were  teachers  of  different  kinds,  who  received 
honour  in  virtue  of  their  knowledge  ;  the  two  positions 
of  elder  and  teacher  being  frequently  united  in  the 
President  of  particular  monasteries. 

No  doubt  gradations  of  this  kind  existed  in  very 
early  times  in  India,  Ceylon,  and  Burma.  But  in  India 
the  whole  Buddhistic  Order  of  monks  passed  away. 

In  Ceylon  and  Burma,  on  the  contrary,  Buddhism 
has  held  its  own.  It  may  even  now  be  found  in  a 
purer  form  in  those  countries  and  in  Siam  than  in  any 
other  region  of  Eastern  Asia,  although  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that,  when  it  was  introduced  there,  it  was 
grafted  on  serpent- worship,  Naga- worship  \  demon - 
worship,  and  Nath-worship  '\  with  all  of  which,  as  well 
as  with  the  worship  of  numerous  Hindu  gods,  it  con- 
tinues to  be  adulterated  in  the  present  day. 

The  Sinhalese  (Koeppen,  i.  207,  386)  give  a  list  of 
the   first   five    successive  enforcers   of  discipline   (viz. 

^  Naga-worship  is  not  always  identical  with  serpent-worship. 
See  p.  220. 

^  The  Naths  are  certain  demons  or  spirits  of  the  air  more  worship- 
ped in  Burma  than  in  Ceylon.    See  p.  259. 


256  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

Upfili,  Dfisaka,  Soiiaka,  Siggava,  and  Moggali-putta), 
and  another  list  of  ten  successive  Sthaviras  or  elders, 
beginning  with  Sari-putta,  These  lists  are  untrust- 
worthy, especially  as  omitting  the  great  Kasyapa. 

And  I  may  here  state  that  the  condition  of  Bud- 
dhism in  Ceylon  is  a  subject  which  I  have  had  an 
opportunity  of  investigating  personally.  I  visited  Cey- 
lon in  1877,  and  had  many  interesting  conversations 
with  intelligent  monks,  heads  of  monasteries,  and  a  few 
really  learned  men,  including  a  leading  monk  named 
Sumangala,  who  described  himself  to  me  as  '  High 
Priest  of  Adam's  Peak  \' 

I  found;  too,  that  a  lofty  idea  prevails  in  Ceylon  in 
regard  to  the  status  of  the  monkhood.  Theoretically,  a 
true  monk  is  regarded  as  a  kind  of  inferior  Buddha, 
and  revered  accordingly.  There  are  boy-pupils,  novices, 
and  full  monks,  as  in  Burma  (see  p.  259).  The  admis- 
sion-ceremonies resemble  those  before  described  (p.  ']'])) 
Admission  confers  no  priestly  powers.  Those  monks 
who  are  Anglicized  by  contact  with  our  civilization 
call  themselves  '  priests,'  but  they  are  not  real  priests, 
and  have  no  sacerdotal  functions  except  teaching,  inton- 
ing the  Law,  and  preaching.  They  live  as  celibates 
and  coenobites  in  Pan-sfdas  ('  houses  made  of  leaves,' 
p.  430),  or  monastic  buildings  of  the  simplest  structure. 

The  number  of  such  monks  is  said  to  be  about  8,000, 
and  their  chief  duties  are  supposed  to  be  to  meditate 
a  great  deal,   to  perform  Bana,  that  is,  to  recite  the 

^  His  jiroper  title  is  Si'Ipada  Sumangala  Unnanse.  The  title  Uu- 
iianse  is  used  by  all  the  superior  monks  of  Ceylon  for  '  venerable ' 
(Sanskrit  vandja). 


THE    BUDDHIST   MONKHOOD    IN    CEYLON.  257 

Tn-j)itaka  with  its  commentary  the  Attha-katha  in  a 
sing-song  voice,  to  repeat  constantly  the  three-refuge 
formula  (p.  78)  \  to  teach  and  to  preach,  to  fast  and 
to  make  confession  to  each  other  on  at  least  four  days 
in  every  month,  at  the  four  changes  of  the  moon  called 
Uposatha  (or  commonly  Poya)  days  (see  p.  84) ;  these 
days  being  generally  in  modern  times  made  to  coincide 
with  the  Christian  Sunday. 

True  Buddhism  does  not  require  monks  to  perform 
public  religious  services  in  temples.  Nor  is  it  the  daily 
practice  of  monks  to  set  the  people  an  example  of  wor- 
shipping and  presenting  offerings  there.  So  far  as 
I  was  able  to  observe,  the  duty  of  visiting  temples 
belongs  rather  to  the  laity.  The  monks  receive  oifer- 
ings,  rather  than  present  them.  As  to  their  dress, 
it  resembles  that  represented  in  the  Buddha's  images, 
and  ought  to  consist  of  three  pieces  of  cloth  stained 
yellow  or  of  a  dull  yellowish  colour.  The  principal 
garment  is  in  one  piece,  but  torn  and  sewn  together 
again,  the  object  being  to  reduce  its  value  and  assimi- 
late it  to  a  dress  made  of  rags.  The  end  of  the  dress 
is  brought  over  the  left  shoulder,  and  generally  so  as 
to  leave  the  right  shoulder  bare.  In  some  cases  both 
shoulders  are  covered,  or  the  right  partially  so. 

A  good  deal  of  care  seems  to  be  taken  in  Ceylon  to 
instruct  the  youthful  members  of  the  Order  in  Pali ; 

^  Suniaiigala  informed  me  that  this  was  the  only  prayer  used  in 
Ceylon.  It  is  no  real  prayer,  but  only  an  expression  of  reverence. 
Often,  however,  wishes  for  good  luck  are  expressed  like  prayers.  They 
are  called  Maugala  or  Jaya-maiigala.  For  example  :  '  May  I  for  this 
particular  act  of  merit  obtain  some  particular  piece  of  good  fortune ! ' 

S 


258  HIEEAKCHICAL    BUDDHISM. 

that  is,  in  the  language  of  their  sacred  books  (p.  60), 
and  to  make  them  conversant  with  the  sacred  texts. 

I  visited  two  principal  colleges  for  monks  at  Kandy, 
whicli  enjoy  a  reputation  rather  like  that  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  in  our  own  country.  One  is  called 
Malwatte,  and  the  other  Asglriya.  In  the  former  I 
noticed  a  large  central  hall,  in  which  the  ceremony  of 
admission  to  the  monkhood  takes  place. 

At  Colombo  there  has  been  recently  a  revival  of 
learning,  and  a  modern  Oriental  College  (called  Vidyo- 
daya),  for  the  cultivation  of  Sanskrit,  Pali,  and  Sinha- 
lese, has  been  established  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  learned  Sumangala,  '  the  High  Priest  of  Adam's 
Peak,'  mentioned  before. 

Each  monastery  in  Ceylon  has  a  presiding  Head,  and 
generally  a  temple  and  library  attached,  with  con- 
siderable property  in  land,  but  there  is  clearly  no 
organized  hierarchy  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term, 
and  no  supreme  authority  like  that  of  an  Archbishop ; 
though  it  is  said  that  the  Heads  of  the  two  Kandy 
Colleires  exercise  a  kind  of  control  over  the  after-career 
of  the  monks  they  have  trained.  I  found  that  a  certain 
amount  of  intelligence  and  learning  exists  among  the 
monks  both  at  Colombo  and  Kandy,  but  it  must  be 
evident  to  every  impartial  observer  that  the  habit  of 
living  in  houses  apart  from  the  laity,  of  repeating  the 
Law  by  rote,  and  of  engaging  in  a  kind  of  meditation 
which  generally  amounts  to  thinking  about  nothing  in 
particular,  must  tend,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  to 
contract  the  mind,  induce  laziness,  and  give  a  vacant 
and  listless  expression  to  the    countenance.      It  may 


GRADATIONS    OF   MONKHOOD    IN   BURMA.  259 

be  safely  affirmed  that  the  chief  religious  aim  of  the 
Buddhists  of  Ceylon  is  to  acquire  merit  with  a  view  to 
'better'  themselves  in  future  states  of  existence,  and 
that  their  highest  aspiration  is  to  attain  to  the  heaven 
of  Indra  (Sakra,  p.  207).  They  have  no  real  desire  for 
Nirvana  (p.  141),  and  still  less  for  Pari-nirvana  (p.  142). 

Passing  on  to  Burma  we  may  remark  that  although 
in  Burma,  as  in  Ceylon,  a  pure  form  of  Buddhism  has 
prevailed  ever  since  its  introduction  by  Buddha-ghosha 
(p.  65),  and  is  still  existent,  yet  we  find  that  the  purer 
system  is  mixed  up,  as  in  Ceylon,  with  the  worship 
of  Nagas,  demons,  spirit-gods  called  Naths  (commonly 
spelt  Nats,  p.  217),  and  with  a  kind  of  Shamanism 
derived  from  the  surrounding  hill-tribes. 

In  regard  to  the  gradations  of  the  monkhood  a  more 
complete  organization  exists  in  Burma  than  in  Ceylon. 

To  begin  with  the  boy-]Dupils : — In  Burma  nearly 
all  boys  become  inmates  of  monastic  houses  (called 
Kyoung)  with  the  one  object  of  learning  to  read  and 
write.  They  are  simply  school-boys  and  nothing  more. 
Indeed,  until  our  advent,  the  monasteries  monopolized 
the  education  of  the  country,  and  to  a  great  extent 
do  so  still.     The  real  gradations  are  as  follow : — 

I.  The  Shell  or  Shin,  that  is  Sramaneras  or  novices. 
These  are  properly  youths  of  at  least  fifteen  years  of 
age  (but  see  p.  307) ;  their  hair  is  cut  off  and  yellow 
garments  are  put  on  for  a  time. 

It  should  be  noted  that  every  male  throughout  Burma 
is  required  to  enter  a  monastery  and  become  a  novice 
for  a  portion  of  his  life,  if  only  for  a  single  Vassa.  This 
is  because  the  Buddha  taught  that  every  true  Buddhist 

s  2 


26o  HIERAECHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

ought  to  conform  to  his  example  and  become  a  monk, 
although  he  wisely  abstained  from  imposing  any  irre- 
vocable vows.  The  whole  process  is  often  merely  formal, 
and  sometimes  only  lasts  for  seven  days. 

2.  The  Pyit-seii  or  Py it-sin  (sometimes  pronounced 
Patzin)  or  full  monks,  who  have  the  title  Pungi  or 
Phungi  (sometimes  spelt  Phungee  or  Phongie),  '  full  of 
great  glory,'  when  they  have  been  at  least  ten  years 
members  of  the  order.  They  correspond  to  the  Srama- 
nas,  and  are  by  Europeans  called  Talapoins  (from  their 
carrying  fans  of  palm  leaves).  Their  dress  usually  con- 
sists of  three  pieces  of  yellow  cotton  cloth. 

3.  The  Hsaya  (always  a  Phungi)  or  Head  of  a  sepa- 
rate monastery,  who  corresponds  to  the  Abbot  of  Eu- 
ropean countries. 

4.  The  Gain-ok  or  provincial  Head,  who  has  a  kind 
of  episcopal  jurisdiction  over  all  the  monasteries  of  a 
district. 

5.  The  Thathana-paing  (Thathana  =  Sanskrit  Sasana) 
or  supreme  rulers,  who  correspond  to  Archbishops. 
They  superintend  all  religious  affairs.  According  to 
Mr.  Scott,  there  are  now  eight  of  them. 

Occasionally  instances  occur  of  hermit-monks  who 
lead  solitary  lives,  and  sit  motionless  in  meditation  for 
years. 

In  Siam  the  gradations  of  monkhood  are  nearly 
similar  to  those  in  Burma,  and  we  learn  from  Mr. 
Alabaster  that  the  monastic  vow  is  not  binding  for 
life,  but  can  be  cancelled  at  any  time.  This  rule 
leads  to  every  Siamese  man  spending  at  least  three 
months  of  bis  life  in  a  monastery. 


NOETHERN  BUDDHISM  MIXED  WITH  SHAMANISM.  26 1 

We  have  dow  to  pass  from  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  Siam 
to  Tibet  (properly  called  Bod  or  Bot  or  Bhot,  Sanskrit 
Bhota).  And  here  we  leave  the  simpler  forms  of 
Buddhism  and  are  brought  face  to  face  with  that 
highly  developed  system  which,  though  nominally  re- 
sulting from  an  expansion  of  the  Hina-yana,  *  Little 
Method,'  into  the  Maha-yana, '  Great  Method'  (p,  158), 
was  really  the  product  of  a  still  further  expansion  of  the 
'  Great  Method '  and  its  combination  with  other  creeds. 

In  truth,  Tibetan  Buddhism  is  so  different  from  every 
other  Buddhistic  system  that  it  ought  to  be  treated  of 
separately  in  a  separate  volume,  as  Koeppen  has  done. 
In  his  elaborate  and  excellent  work  on  this  subject  he 
has  remarked  that  for  the  development  of  a  hierarchy 
no  circumstance  is  more  favourable  than  isolation,  and 
that  this  advantage  was  offered  in  the  highest  degree 
by  Tibet.  Up  to  the  moment  of  its  conversion  to 
Buddhism  a  profound  darkness  had  rested  on  it.  The 
inhabitants  were  ignorant  and  uncultivated,  and  their 
indigenous  religion,  sometimes  called  Bon,  consisted 
chiefly  of  magic  based  on  a  kind  of  Shamanism. 

To  describe  exactly  what  Shamanism  is  would  be  no 
easy  task.  The  word  is  said  to  be  of  Tungusic  origin  \ 
and  to  be  used  as  a  name  for  the  earliest  religion  of 
Mongolia,  Siberia,  and  other  Northern  countries. 

Perhaps  we  shall  not  be  far  wrong  in  asserting  that 
the  two  principal  constitutents  of  Shamanism  are  the 
worship  of  nature  and  the  dread  of  spirits. 


^  Some   connect   the    wizai'd-priest    Sliaman    with    the    Buddhist 
Sramana. 


262  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

The  inhabitants  of  Tibet  and  Mongolia  and  indeed  of 
other  Northern  countries  believed  that  spirits,  good 
and  bad,  influenced  the  whole  course  of  nature.  They 
held  that  such  spirits  were  able  either  to  cause  or  to 
avert  diseases  and  disasters,  to  control  the  destinies  of 
men,  and  even  to  decide  the  fate  of  the  lower  animals. 
Hence  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  chief  func- 
tion of  the  Shamans,  or  wizard-priests,  was  to  exorcise 
evil  demons,  or  to  propitiate  them  hj  sacrifices  and 
various  magical  practices.  In  this  way  they  pretended 
to  prevent  storms,  pestilences,  and  other  calamities. 
They  were  supposed,  too,  to  understand  omens  and  to 
predict  the  future  by  watching  the  flights  of  birds,  by 
examining  the  shoulder-blades  of  sheep,  and  by  similar 
devices.  Shamanism,  in  fact,  with  its  Tibetan  offshoot, 
Bon,  had  much  in  common  with  the  lowest  types  of 
Saivism,  Saktism,  and  Tantrism,  with  which  the  Bud- 
dhism of  Northern  India,  Nepal,  and  the  countries  bor- 
dering on  Tibet,  had  already  become  adulterated. 

When,  therefore,  this  mixed  form  of  Buddhism  ad- 
vanced from  those  countries  into  Tibet,  its  approach 
was  not  resisted  as  an  intrusion.  On  the  contrary, 
Tibetan  Shamanism,  although  it  had  possession  of  the 
field,  was  quite  ready  to  meet  the  new  religion  half- 
way. The  result  was  an  alliance,  or  rather  perhaps  an 
amalgamation ;  and  this  led  to  the  establishment  of  a 
complex  religious  system  which  I  have  ventured  to  call 
Lamism  ^ 

^  Lama  (written  in  Tibetan  bLama)  is  the  Tibetan  name  for  a 
superior  teacher  (Sanskrit  Guru),  and  from  this  word  the  hierarchical 
system  of  Tibet  is  usually  called  Lamaism,     It  seems,  however,  as 


GEADATTONS   OF    MONKHOOD    IN   TIBET.  263 

Laraism,  then,  is  a  form  of  Buddhism  which,  although 
based  on  the  Hina-yana  and  Maha-yana  of  India,  is 
combined  with  Shamanism,  Siva-worship,  and  magic, 
and  has  a  marked  individuality  and  a  peculiar  hierar- 
chical organization  of  its  own.  This  organization  has 
been  compared  to  that  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Doubtless  in  its  great  receptivity  Buddhism  may  have 
borrowed  from  Christianity,  but  Lamism  possesses  cer- 
tain unique  features  which  distinguish  it  from  every 
other  system  in  the  world. 

Unfortunately  few  Europeans  have,  as  yet,  pene- 
trated into  Tibet,  and  its  sacred  literature  has  been 
little  studied.  It  follows  therefore  that  the  various 
gradations  of  the  Tibetan  hierarchy  are  not  easily  de- 
scribed, and  only  a  general  idea  of  them  can  be  given. 

We  ought  first  to  note  the  boy-pupil  called  Genyen, 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  Bandi  or  Bante  ( =  Bandya  ^ 
a  term  more  properly  applicable  to  monks).  Bov-pupils 
are  inmates  of  every  Tibetan  monastery ;  but  under 
exceptional  circumstances  a  pupil  may  live  with  his 
parents.  He  may  be  received  after  seven  years  of  age, 
and  until  fifteen,  as  in  Burma  (p.  259).  He  is  placed 
under  a  full  monk,  who  teaches  him  and  makes  him 
promise  to  keep  the  five  chief  commandments  (p.  126). 
Though  sometimes  called  a  novice  he  is  merely  under 

legitimate  to  form  a  word  Lamism  from  Lama,  as  Buddhism  from 
Buddha.  At  any  rate  my  adjective  Lamistic  is  less  awkward  than 
Lamaistic.     As  to  a  in  Lama,  see  Rules  for  pronunciation  at  p.  xxxi. 

^  This  is  the  Sanskrit  vandya,  'to  be  saluted.'  I  cannot  help 
thinking  that  Bante  and  Bandya  may  be  the  origin  of  the  term 
Bonze,  applied  to  monks  or  priests  in  China,  though  I  believe 
Professor  Legge  connects  Bonze  with  Munshl. 


264  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

education,  and  not  necessarily  a  candidate  for  the  monk- 
hood. The  real  degrees  of  the  Lamistic  hierarchy,  as 
explained  by  Koeppen  and  others,  are  as  follow  : — 

1.  First  and  lowest  in  rank  comes  the  novice  or 
junior  monk,  called  Gethsul  (Getzul),  who  has  been 
admitted  after  fifteen  years  of  age  to  the  first  stage  of 
monkhood  by  a  Khanpo  Lama  or  his  representative. 
His  hair  is  cut  off  and  he  wears  the  monkish  garments, 
and  has  112  rules  to  observe.  He  waits  on  the  full 
monk,  and  assists  in  all  functions  except  blessing  and 
consecrating.  He  has  been  compared  to  the  deacon  of 
the  European  ecclesiastical  system,  but  the  comparison 
is  misleading,  as  shown  at  p.  76. 

2.  Secondly  and  higher  in  rank  we  have  the  full 
monk,  called  Gelong  (or  Geloii).  He  corresponds  to 
the  Bhikshu,  who  has  received  complete  consecration, 
and  is  often  called  by  courtesy  a  Lama  (see  note,  p.  262), 
though  he  has  no  real  right  to  that  title.  He  is  not 
properly  a  priest,  yet  it  is  certain  that  in  Tibet  he  often 
disch?irges  sacerdotal  functions.  The  ceremony  of  ad- 
mission to  the  full  monkhood  can  only  be  performed 
after  the  twentieth  year,  and  binds  the  recipient  to 
253  rules  of  discipline  \ 

3.  Thirdly  we  have  the  superior  Gelong  or  Khanpo 
(strictly  mKhan  po),  who  has  a  real  right  to  the  further 
title  Lama,  and  from  his  higher  knowledge  and  sanc- 
tity sometimes  becomes  a  kind  of  head-teacher  (Sanskrit 
Upadhyaya  or  Acfirya).    As  the  chief  monk  in  a  monas- 


^  According  to  Dr.  Schlagintweit  the  number  of  rules  is  250,  and 
they  are  detailed  in  the  first  or  Dulva  portion  of  the  Kanjur. 


GRADATIONS    OF   AVATAEA   LAMAS.  265 

tery  he  may  be  compared  to  the  European  Abbot;  but 
in  respect  of  consecration  he  is  only  a  Gelong.  Nor 
are  any  of  the  higher  grades  of  monks — so  far  as  the 
forms  of  consecration  are  concerned — higher  than  Ge- 
longs  and  Khanpos. 

At  this  point,  however,  we  have  to  note  the  special 
peculiarity  of  the  Lamistic  system,  namely,  that  some 
of  the  higher  Khanpo  Lamas  are  supposed  to  be  living 
re-incarnations  or  re- embodiments  of  certain  canonized 
saints  and  Bodhi-sattvas  who  differ  in  rank.  These  are 
called  Avatara  Lamas  (see  p.  190),  and  of  such  there  are 
three  degrees,  which  we  may  denote  by  the  letters 
A.  B.  C.  as  follow  : — 

A.  The  lowest  degree  of  Avatara  Lama.  He  may 
be  called  an  ordinary  Khubilghan  (from  a  Mongolian 
v/ord — written  by  Hue,  Hubilghan).  He  represents 
the  continuous  re-embodiment  of  an  ordinary  canonized 
saint  (p.  188),  or  founder  of  some  great  monastery. 
He  is  higher  by  one  degree  than  the  Khanpo  Abbot, 
as  presiding  over  a  more  important  monastery. 

B.  A  higher  grade  of  Avatara  Lama  called  Khutuktu. 
He  exercises  a  kind  of  episcopal  jurisdiction  over  a  still 
more  important  monastery  than  that  presided  over  by 
the  ordinary  incarnated  Lama.  He  represents  the  in- 
carnation of  a  higher  Bodhi-sattva  or  deified  saint,  but 
he  sometimes  claims  to  be  an  incarnated  Buddha. 

C.  The  highest  Avatara  Lama  commonly  called  a 
Supreme  or  Grand  Lama.  He  is  not  an  incarnation  of 
a  mere  ordinary  Bodhi-sattva  (p.  188),  but  a  continuous 
re-embodiment  of  either  a  supreme  Buddha  or  of  his 
Bodhi-sattva.    The  two  notable  examples  of  this  highest 


266  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

degree  are  the  Dalai  and  Panchen  Lamas,  who  claim 
an  authority,  like  that  of  a  Pope  or  Archbishop,  over 
extensive  regions  outside  their  own  monasteries.  They 
will  be  more  fully  described  in  the  sequel  (see  p.  284). 

It  may  be  stated  generally,  therefore,  that  the  La- 
mistic  hierarchy  consists  of  three  lower  and  three 
higher  grades.  We  have,  besides,  to  reckon  certain 
other  distinctions  of  rank,  such  as  those  of  the  Piab- 
jampa,  '  doctor  of  theology  or  philosophy,'  the  Chorje 
(strictly  Chos-rje),  '  lord  of  the  faith.'  These  are  some- 
times associated  with  the  Khanpo  or  Abbot,  though 
slightly  inferior  in  rank  to  that  dignitary.  It  is  said 
that  the  Uhorje  often  acts  as  a  kind  of  coadjutor 
Abbot.  Practically  they  rank  below  the  incarnated  or 
Avatara  Lamas.  Moreover,  in  every  monastery  there 
are  numerous  other  subordinate  officials  ;  for  example, 
schoolmasters,  teachers  who  exjjlain  the  Law  and  guide 
the  studies  of  the  brotherhood,  precentors  or  choir- 
masters, secretaries,  collectors  of  revenue,  treasurers, 
stewards,  overseers,  physicians,  painters,  sculptors, 
manufacturers  of  relics,  of  amulets,  of  rosaries,  of  images, 
and  in  some  monasteries — especially  those  of  the  Eed 
sect — astrologers,  fortune-tellers,  magicians  (Chos-kyong 
or  Chos-kyon),  and  exorcists.  The  Lama  is  not  only 
the  priest ;  he  is  the  educator,  schoolmaster,  physician, 
astrologer,  architect,  sculptor,  painter ;  he  is  '  the  head, 
the  heart,  the  oracle  of  the  laity.' 

There  is  also  a  whole  class  of  mendicant  Lamas,  who 
liave  vowed  to  live  a  vagabond  life  for  a  certain  number 
of  years.  They  are  better  known  than  some  others, 
for  they  often  find  their  way  into  British  territory. 


VAGABOND    LAMAS.      FEMALE    HIERAECHY.  267 

When  I  was  staying  at  Darjiling,  I  encountered 
two  specimens  of  the  vagabond  class  who  came  from 
some  distant  part  of  Tibet.  They  called  themselves 
Lamas,  though,  of  course,  they  had  no  real  right  to 
that  title.  They  were  clothed  in  ragged  garments 
made  up  of  thirty-two  patches  of  different  cloths,  and 
wore  thick  buskins  to  protect  them  from  the  snows. 
Then  they  carried  a  kind  of  knapsack  or  wallet  of 
goat-skin  behind  their  backs,  and  in  their  hands  a 
sort  of  sacred  drum  or  tabour  called  Damaru  (see 
p.  384). 

According  to  M.  Hue,  these  vagabond  Lamas  travel 
for  the  sake  of  travelling.  They  wander  through  China, 
Manchuria,  Southern  Mongolia,  Kuku  Nur,  Tibet, 
Northern  India,  and  even  Turkestan. 

There  is  scarcely  a  river  which  they  have  not  crossed  J 
a  mountain  which  they  have  not  ascended;  a  Grand 
Lama  before  whom  they  have  not  prostrated  them- 
selves ;  a  people  among  whom  they  have  not  lived, 
and  of  whom  they  do  not  know  the  manners  and 
language. 

It  should  be  noted  that  when  an  incarnated  Lama 
is  the  spiritual  Head  of  a  monastery  there  is  generally 
a  temporal  Head  to  manage  its  affairs. 

Then  we  must  not  forget  that  Tibetan  Buddhism 
has  also  its  organized  female  hierarchy,  on  the  highest 
steps  of  which  are  female  Khutuktus  and  incarnated 
Abbesses,  as  well  as  lower  gradations  of  nuns  and 
novices,  living  together  in  their  own  convents. 

The  rules  of  discipline  for  the  whole  Lamistic 
hierarchv  fill  at  least  thirteen  out  of  the  108  volumes 


268  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

of  the  Tibetan  Canon  (see  p.  272).  They  do  not  differ 
materially  from  those  of  other  Buddhist  countries. 
The  253  rules  of  the  Pratimoksha-sutra  (see  p.  62) 
are  said  to  contain  commands  and  prohibitions  relating 
to  five  sides  of  the  monastic  life — conduct,  dress,  food, 
habitation,  and  occupation. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  early  Lamism,  like 
true  Buddhism,  had  properly  no  secular  priesthood 
and  encouraged  no  intercourse  with  the  outer  world, 
except  for  the  reception  of  alms  and  food  from  the 
laity.  All  grades  of  the  hierarchy  were  supposed  to 
live  together  as  one  ceHbate  fraternity  in  monastic 
seclusion,  apart  from  mundane  associations.  Their  only 
duties  were  to  meditate,  recite  the  Law,  and  obey 
certain  strict  rules  of  discipline.  This  strictness  of 
discipline,  however,  was  not  long  borne  with  equal 
patience  by  the  whole  fraternity.  It  soon  became 
irksome  to  a  large  section,  and  the  same  state  of  things 
Avhicli  arose  in  early  Buddhism  and  generally  arises  in 
all  religious  communities,  occurred  in  Lamism.  The 
fraternity  of  Lamas  became  split  up  into  two  chief 
parties  or  sects — the  strict  and  the  lax.  We  shall  see 
in  the  end  that  these  two  sects  were  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  the  colour  of  their  garments,  and 
especially  of  their  caps,  tlie  former  adopting  yellow 
and  calling  themselves  Gelug  pa  or  Galdan  pa,  the  latter 
adopting  red  (Shamar).  Of  course  the  lax  or  Ked-cap 
sect  soon  infringed  the  rule  in  regard  to  celibacy,  and 
allowed  the  marriage  of  monks  under  certain  con- 
ditions, though  such  marriages  seem  at  first  to  have 
been  exceptional. 


AVATAR  A   THEORY.       HISTORY   OF   TIBET.  269 

It  is  said,  indeed,  that  in  Nepal,  under  modern  Gorkha 
rule,  the  celibate  occupies  a  lower  position  than  the 
married  monk,  to  whom  the  services  in  the  temples 
are  committed.  It  is  said,  too,  that  the  Lamas  of  Sikkim 
and  other  northern  countries  constantly  have  children 
living  wdth  them,  though  they  do  not  admit  them  to 
be  their  own  (p.  152).  Yet,  for  all  that,  celibacy  is  the 
rule,  and  nominally,  at  any  rate,  the  great  majority  of 
Lamistic  monks  in  Eastern  Asia  are  unmarried  coeno- 
bites, who  live  together  in  monasteries. 

Certainly  in  no  other  country  in  the  world  are  monas- 
teries so  numerous  or  on  so  vast  a  scale  as  in  Tibet 
and  Mongolia  (see  p.  426). 

And,  indeed,  in  all  probability  it  was  the  difficulty 
of  enforcing  discipline  and  order  in  these  immense  estab- 
lishments, without  some  method  of  securing  obedience 
to  a  presiding  Head  acceptable  to  all  the  inmates,  that 
led  to  that  strange  re-incarnation  or  '  Avatara '  theory 
which  is  one  chief  distinguishing  feature  of  Lamism, 

The  process  by  which  this  remarkable  theory  was 
developed  is  so  interesting  and  so  important  in  relation 
to  the  subject  of  the  present  Lecture  that  it  deserves 
careful  investigation,  and  to  clear  the  ground  we  must 
here  make  a  brief  digression  and  advert  to  some  cir- 
cumstances in  the  early  history  of  Tibet  and  Mongolia, 
as  given  in  Koeppen's  laborious  work. 

We  learn  from  him  that  Nya  Khri  Tsanpo,  who 
lived  in  the  Yarlung  valley,  was  the  first  king  of  Tibet. 
After  several  successors  came  Srong  Tsan  Gampo. 
This  king  was  born  in  617,  and,  according  to  a  legend, 
exhibited    at   his   birth    certain    marks    of  perfection 


270  HIERARCHICAL    BUDDHISM. 

like  those  of  Amitabha  or  Avaloldtesvara  (p.  198).    He 
is  worshipped  as  a  great  Conqueror  and  Reformer. 

In  the  year  632,  or  about  the  time  when  Muhammad 
died  in  Arabia,  he  began  the  work  of  civilizing  his 
subjects.  To  this  end  he  directed  his  minister  Thumi 
(or  Thonmi)  Sambhota  to  proceed  to  India,  and  make 
himself  acquainted  with  Buddhist  writings.  This 
great  man  was  the  first  to  design  the  Tibetan  alphabet 
on  the  model  of  the  Indian  letters  then  in  use  (called 
Lancha),  but  rejecting  certain  consonants  and  certain 
vowels  as  unsuitable  for  the  representation  of  Tibetan 
sounds,  and  adding  six  new  letters.  Hence  he  was  the 
first  to  introduce  the  art  of  writing  along  with  Bud- 
dhism into  Tibet. 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  Buddhism,  to  its  great 
credit,  has  generally  given  some  sort  of  literary  educa- 
tion to  the  barbarous  nations  to  which  it  has  imparted 
its  own  doctrines.  It  has  also  made  the  vernacular 
of  the  people  its  medium  of  instruction,  though  it  has 
not  always  translated  its  sacred  literature  or  ritualistic 
formularies  into  that  vernacular. 

The  first  Tibetan  author  was  Thumi  Sambhota  him- 
self, who  is  said  to  have  composed  a  grammar  and  other 
books  during  his  sojourn  in  India.  An  important  work 
translated  by  him  into  the  vernacular  was  the  Mani 
Kambum — a  Tantra  work,  alleged  to  have  been  revealed 
by  Amitabha  and  his  son  Avalokitesvara.  This  book 
describes  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  into  Tibet  as 
well  as  the  origin  of  the  well-known  six-syllabled 
prayer-formula  of  Tibet — Om  mani  padme  Hiim  (see 
pp.  371-374).     It  contains  100,000  precepts. 


EARLY    HISTORY    OF   TIBETAN   BUDDHISM.  271 

The  teaching  of  Thumi  Sambhota  seems  to  have 
been  of  an  orthodox  character.  He  may  perhaps  be 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  strict  school  of  Tibetan 
Buddhism  (already  mentioned),  which  was  afterwards 
called  Kadampa,  and  finally  developed  into  the 
Yellow-robed  sect,  as  distinguished  from  the  Eed. 
After  Thumi  Sambhota  the  propagation  of  Buddhism  in 
Tibet  was  chiefly  carried  on  by  the  two  princesses,  wives 
of  King  Srong  Tsan  Gampo,  called  Dolkar  and  Doljang. 
Tliey  were  worshipped  under  the  name  Dolma,  as  forms 
of  the  wife  of  Siva  or  of  the  goddess  Tara ;  one  being 
called  the  white  mother,  and  the  other,  the  dark ;  repre- 
sentino-  the  mild  and  fierce  forms  of  Siva's  consorts 

The  first  two  Lama  monasteries  in  Tibet  (called  La 
brang  and  Ba  mo  che,  founded  about  a.d.  650 ;  Edgar, 
p.  38)  were  erected  at  Lhassa  ^  by  them  or  in  their 
honour,  and  each  monastery  contained  a  renowned  won- 
der-working image,  which  each  princess  had  brought 
with  her  (see  pp.  440,  441,  492). 

After  King  Srong  Tsan  Gampo,  Buddhism  declined 
in  Tibet.  One  of  his  successors,  named  Khri  Srong  De 
Tsan,  who  was  born  in  728  a.d.  and  reigned  from  740 
to  786,  tried  to  restore  it.  For  this  purpose,  he  sent 
for  religious  teachers  in  great  numbers  from  India. 
These  seem  to  have  brought  with  them  a  very  corrupt 

^  One  was  a  Nepalese  pi'incess  (called  Bribsun)  and  the  other  a 
Chinese  princess  (called  Wenching-).  According  to  Koeppen,  they 
were  worshipped  under  tlie  general  name  Dara  Eke — Dara  standing 
for  the  Sanskrit  Tara  and  Eke  meaning  Mother. 

■^  Some  write  Lhasa  (strictly  Lhasa).  I  prefer  Lhassa  as  best  repre- 
senting the  pronunciation.  It  means  'the  city  of  the  gods'  (Ihaorlha). 


272  HIEEARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

form  of  Buddhism,  which  aimed  chiefly  at  comiter- 
acting  the  evil  influences  of  demons  by  magical  spells. 

First  came  Santa  Kakshita,  with  twelve  companions 
from  Bengal. 

Then  the  celebrated  Padma-sambhava  was  sent  for 
out  of  the  land  of  Udyana  (  =  Dardistan)— =^west  of  the 
Indus,  north  of  Peshawar — where  the  people  were  ad- 
dicted to  Saivism  and  witchcraft.  It  was  under  him 
that  the  great  monastery  at  Sam  ye  (strictly  Sam  y  as) 
was  built  (see  p.  448).  He  was  celebrated  for  his  skill 
in  magic,  sorcery,  and  alchemy,  and  became  the  real 
founder  of  the  Bed  sect,  after  instructing  several 
young  Tibetans  in  his  own  lore.  At  the  same  time 
he  was  remarkable  for  his  knowledge  of  Indian  lan- 
guages, and  was  active  in  promoting  a  taste  for  litera- 
ture in  Tibet.  It  redounds  much  to  his  credit  that  he 
was  the  first  to  further  the  translation  of  the  whole 
Buddhist  Canon  (almost  entirely  from  Sanskrit  books) 
into  Tibetan. 

But  the  sacred  books  had  by  that  time  greatly  in- 
creased, so  that  the  Tibetan  Canon  commonlv  called 
Kanjur  (or  more  strictly  Kangyur  and  Ka-gyur,  pp.  70, 
267)  consisted  of  at  least  108  volumes. 

Then  we  have  the  Tanjur  (Tangyur)  consisting  of 
225  folio  volumes  of  translations,  commentaries,  and 
treatises,  corresponding  to  the  Attha-katha  of  Ceylon 
(p.  65),  and  embracing  works  on  all  subjects  (often 
mere  translations  from  the  Sanskrit),  such  as  grammar, 
logic,  rhetoric,  poetry,  medicine,  astrology,  alchemy, 
magic,  and  the  use  of  spells. 

A  sect  called  Urgyanpa  (or  Urgyenpa),  another  called 


EARLY   HISTOKY    OF    TIBETAN   BUDDHISM.  273 

Brugpa  (or  Dugpa  or  Dukpa),  another  called  Sakyapa — 
all  belonging  to  the  Eed-clothed  (in  Tibetan,  Shamar) 
Lamas  who  are  numerous  in  Nepal,  Bhutan,  Sikkim, 
Ladak,  and  in  portions  of  Southern  Tibet — follow  the 
rules  of  Padma-sarabhava. 

After  Khri  Srong  De  Tsan  came  a  number  of  kings 
who  caused  Buddhism  to  decline ;  but  in  the  second 
half  of  the  eleventh  century  it  began  to  recover,  and 
learned  men  were  sent  for  from  Kashmir  and  India, 
one  of  whom  was  Atisha  (strictly  Atisa),  who  might  be 
called  the  re-founder  of  Lamism. 

He  had  an  eminent  Tibetan  pupil  named  Brom  Ton 
(Brom-sTon  or  Brom  Bakshi  ^).  All  violent  opposition 
to  Buddhism  then  ceased.  Monastery  after  monastery 
was  founded  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 

Three  of  the  most  important  were  (i)  Kaseng  (or  Ea- 
deng,  strictly  Ra  sGreng),  north-east  of  Lhassa,  founded 
by  Brom  Ton  in  1058  ;  (2)  Sakya  (see  p.  448),  situated  in 
the  district  of  Tsang,  south-west  of  Shigatse,  and  founded 
by  Koncho  Yalpo,  whose  son  was  the  first  Grand  Lama 
of  this  monastery ;  (3)  Brikhung  (also  written  Brikun 
or  Brigun  or  Brigung),  four  days'  journey  north  of 
Lhassa,  founded  by  Koncho  Yalpo's  son. 

Atisha  belonged  to  a  school  which  did  not  favour 
Saivism  and  sorcery  in  the  way  that  Padma-sambhava 
had  done,  and  his  pupil,  Brom  Ton  of  the  Easeng 
monastery,  was  the  founder  of  the  sect  called  Kadampa^, 

^  Bakshi  is  probably  a  corruption  of  Bhiksbu.  Koeppen  says  it  is 
Mongolian  for  Ton.  Mr.  Edgar  (Eeport,  p.  39)  pronounces  Brom  Ton 
Dointon. 

^  Dr.  Schlagintweit  (p.  73)  identifies  this  witb  the  sect  which  wear 
red  dresses,  but  this  must  surely  be  an  error  for  yellow. 

T 


274  HIEKAECHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

which  enforced  great  strictness  of  monastic  life — a  sect 
which,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  had  its  earhest 
origin  in  the  teaching  of  Thumi  Sambhota,  and  whose 
tenets  were  adopted  by  the  celebrated  reformer  Tsong 
Khapa  (p.  277),  the  real  founder  of  the  Yellow  sect. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  monks  of  the  Sakya  monas- 
tery belonged  to  the  more  lax  school,  and  were  there- 
fore followers  of  Padma-sambhava.  No  doubt  these 
two  chief  monasteries  of  Easeng  and  Sakya  maintained 
at  first  their  own  separate  independence,  the  presiding 
Lama  of  each  claiming  equal  authority  with  the  other. 
Then  in  process  of  time,  a  rivalry  sprang  up  between 
them.  Moreover  the  Brikhung  monastery  strove  with 
the  Sakya,  each  trying  to  acquire  predominance.  Ulti- 
mately they  appealed  to  the  Chinese  authorities,  who 
decided  that  the  highest  position  belonged  to  the  mon- 
astery of  Sakya  and  to  the  Eed  sect. 

And  here  we  have  to  turn  for  a  short  time  to 
Mongolia.  That  country  received  its  Buddhism,  or 
rather  Lamism,  from  Tibet.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
great  Mongol  conqueror,  Jenghiz  Khan,  conquered 
Tibet  about  a.d.  i2o6\  Before  that  period  the  Mon- 
golians had  come  in  contact  with  various  religious  cults  ; 
for  example,  with  Zoroastrianisra,  Buddhism,  and  Isliim. 
They  had  even  had  some  experience  of  Christianity  ; 
for  Nestorian  Missions  existed  in  Central  Asia  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  centuries  of  our  era,  and  penetrated  to 
China  in  the  seventh  century.     All  these  religions  strove 


^  Thiough  the  Mongols  Tibet  gradually  came  under  the  power  of 
China  from  1255  to  1720.     The  dynasty  in  China  is  now  Mauchu. 


HIERAKCHICAL   BUDDHISM   IN    MONGOLIA.  275 

to  convert  the  Mongolians,  who  soon  became  an  im- 
portant nation  through  the  conquests  of  Jenghiz  Khan. 
That  conqueror,  however,  had  a  very  simple  religion  of 
his  own.  He  believed  in  one  God  in  heaven,  and  one 
king  on  earth  ;  that  is,  he  believed  that  God  had  given 
him  the  dominion  of  the  whole  world,  and  he  set  himself 
to  conquer  the  world.  Yet  he  tolerated  all  religions. 
'As  the  hand/  he  said,  'has  many  fingers,  so  there  are 
many  ways  to  show  men  how  they  may  reach  heaven.' 

Khubilai  (i  259-1 294),  the  greatest  of  all  the  descend- 
ants of  Jenghiz  and  Sovereign  of  a  vast  empire,  was 
the  first  to  elevate  his  people  above  a  mere  life  of 
rapine  and  plunder ;  and  it  struck  him  that  the  best 
method  of  civilizing  them  would  be  by  adopting  and 
promoting  Buddhism,  which  the  greater  number  of  the 
races  subject  to  him  already  professed. 

Between  the  indigenous  Shamanism  of  Northern 
countries  and  the  doctrines  of  Confucius,  or  of  Islam, 
or  of  Christianity,  there  were  no  points  of  contact ; 
whereas  Shamanism,  as  we  have  seen,  had  much  com- 
mon ground  with  Northern  Buddhism,  which  had 
become  mixed  up  with  Saivism  and  magic. 

It  was  this  that  led  Khubilai  to  adopt  the  Lamistic 
or  Tibetan  form  of  Buddhism.  He  also  thought  it  wise 
to  conciliate  the  spiritual  potentates  of  Tibet,  who  had 
for  many  centuries  taken  all  real  power  out  of  the 
hands  of  their  temporal  chiefs. 

And  among  Lamistic  prelates,  the  Head  of  the 
Monastery  of  Sakya  and  of  the  Bed  school  in  Southern 
Tibet  had,  as  we  have  seen,  acquired  a  kind  of 
sovereignty.     Many  monks  of  this  Bed  sect  married, 

T  2 


276  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

according  to  the  practice  of  the  Brahmans,  and  remained 
householders  till  a  son  and  heir  was  born  to  them.  At 
that  time  they  had  a  presiding  monk,  called  Sakya 
Pandita,  and  the  Emperor  Khubilai  appointed  Mati- 
dhvaja,  the  Pandita's  nephew,  to  succeed  him  as  Head 
of  the  monastery,  conferring  on  him  a  certain  amount 
of  temporal  power  and  making  him  a  kind  of  tributary 
ruler  of  Tibet.  He  was  known  as  the  Phaspa  (strictly 
Phags  pa), '  excellent  Lama,'  and  in  return  for  the  supre- 
macy granted  to  him,  was  required  to  consecrate  or 
crown  the  emperors  of  Mongolia. 

Koeppen  observes  that  Khubilai  was  thus  the  creator 
of  the  first  Lamistic  Pope  ;  just  as  Pepin  and  Charle- 
magne were  of  the  first  Christian  Pope. 

The  Mongolians  also  owe  their  written  character  and 
literature  to  Buddhism.  It  was  Phaspa  Lama  who 
invented  the  Mongolian  alphabet.  Taking  the  Tibetan 
alphabet  as  liis  model,  he  invented  a  square  character 
with  a  thousand  syllables.  He  then  undertook  a  new 
revision  of  the  Buddhist  sacred  writings,  causing  the 
Tibetan  sacred  texts  (Kanjur)  to  be  compared  with  the 
•Chinese.  It  is  said  that  this  lasted  from  the  year  1285 
to  1306. 

Twenty-nine  learned  men,  versed  in  the  Tibetan, 
TJgrian,  Chinese,  and  Sanskrit  languages,  were  occupied 
on  the  task  of  collation,  and  a  few  years  later,  the  first 
Mongolian  translation  of  the  sacred  texts  was  begun  by 
the  Sakya  Lama  Choskyi  Odser. 

Khubilai,  no  doubt,  was  a  great  promoter  of  Buddhism, 
and  founded  many  monasteries  in  Mongolia,  and  a 
celebrated  one  at  Peking. 


BIRTH  OF  BUDDHIST  REFORMER  TSONG  KHAPA.     277 

After  the  elevation  of  the  Phaspa  Lama  to  quasi- 
temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  sovereignty  very  little  is 
known  about  the  state  of  Buddhism  in  Tibet,  except 
that  the  successive  Heads  of  the  Sakya  monastery 
maintained  their  jDosition  under  Khubilai's  successors, 
and  of  course  perpetuated  and  extended  the  doctrines 
of  the  Eed  school  of  Buddhism.  Probably  they  resided 
at  Lhassa,  and  possibly  at  the  Mongolo- Chinese  Court, 

In  1368,  the  last  Mongol  emperor  was  expelled  by 
the  founder  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  after  Jenghiz's  family 
had  occupied  the  throne  of  China  for  about  a  century. 

Tlie  emperors  of  this  dynasty  did  their  best  to  bring 
Tibet  under  the  Chinese  Government,  and  to  conciliate 
the  Tibetan  Lamas  by  gifts,  titles,  and  other  favours. 
But  they  thought  it  politic  to  prevent  the  predominance 
of  any  one  monastery.  Hence  they  made  three  other 
Heads  of  monasteries  equal  in  rank  to  the  Sakya  Lama, 
and  encouraged  antagonism  between  them.  This  facili- 
tated the  great  Pieform  which  Lamism  underwent  in 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Jong  lo — a  reform  brought 
about  by  the  celebrated  Tsong  Khapa,  sometimes  called 
the  Luther  of  Lamistic  Buddhism. 

Tsong  Khapa,  whose  name  is  as  much  celebrated  in 
Mongolia  and  Tibet  and  among  the  Kalmuk  Tartars  as 
that  of  the  founder  of  Buddhism,  is  said  to  have  been 
born  in  the  year  1355  or  1357  of  our  era,  in  the  land  of 
Amdo,  where  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Kunbum  or 
Kumbum — situated  North  of  Tibet  on  the  borders  of 
China — now  stands.  All  sorts  of  legends,  but  none 
worth  repeating,  are  related  about  him.  We  may  note, 
however,   a  probable  tradition  that  a  learned  Lama, 


278  HIERARCHICAL    BUDDHISM. 

*  with  a  long  nose  and  bright  eves/  who  had  settled  in 
the  land  of  Amdo,  and  may  possibly  have  been  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  became  his  teacher. 

In  processor  time,  TsongKhapa  set  out  on  a  journey 
from  Amdo  to  Tibet,  his  object  being  to  acquire  a  know- 
ledge of  the  doctrine  from  original  sources.  He  is  said 
to  have  studied  the  Law  of  Buddha  at  Sakva,  Brikhung, 
and  Lliassa.  It  was  in  this  way  that  he  became  im- 
pressed with  the  necessity  of  purifying  and  reforming 
the  discipline  of  Tibetan  Buddhism,  which  the  Eed  sect 
had  corrupted  by  allowing  the  marriage  of  monks  and 
by  laxity  in  other  matters.  Innumerable  pupils 
gathered  round  him,  all  of  whom  adopted,  as  their 
distinguishing  mark,  the  orthodox  yellow  garments  of 
primitive  Buddhism,  and  especially  the  yellow  cap  (p. 
268)  ;  while  the  followers  of  Padma-sambhava  and  the 
more  corrupt  school  wore  red  garments  and  a  red  cap. 

Tsong  Khapa  soon  acquired  vast  influence,  and  in 
the  year  1409  was  able  to  build  on  a  hill  about  thirty 
miles  from  Lhassa,  the  afterwards  celebrated  monastery 
called  Galdan  (or  Gahdan)  of  the  Yellow  school.  Of 
this  Tsong  Khapa  was  the  first  Abbot.  His  followers, 
however,  rapidly  became  too  numerous  to  be  com- 
prehended within  so  limited  an  area.  Hence  there 
arose  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Lhassa,  two 
other  great  monasteries,  Brepung  (also  written  Dapung, 
etc.,  see  p.  442),  founded  by  Jam-yang  Chos-rje,  and 
Sera  '  the  Golden,'  founded  by  Byam  Chen  Chos-rje. 

These  three  monasteries  once  held  30,000  monks  of 
the  Yellow  sect,  but  now  have  only  16,500. 

Tsong    Khapa  wrote    many  works,    which   enjoy  a 


TSONG  KHAPA  S  REFORMATION  IN  TIBET.  279 

quasi-canonical  authority  among  the  adherents  of  the 
reformed  sect.  Many  of  them  exist  in  Mongolian  trans- 
lations, but  they  have  not  yet  been  fully  examined. 

Undeniably,  Tsong  Khapa's  chief  merit  was  that  he 
caused  his  followers  to  revert  to  the  purer  monastic 
disciphne,  especially  to  the  rule  of  celibacy.  He  also 
purified  the  forms  of  worship,  and  greatly  restricted 
without  altogether  prohibiting  the  use  of  magical  rites. 
Tsong  Khapa,  too,  is  said  to  have  re-established  the 
original  practice  of  retirement  for  religious  meditation 
at  certain  seasons,  although  as  there  was  no  rainy 
season  in  Tibet,  another  period  had  to  be  chosen. 

Travellers  in  Tibet  have  often  described  the  many 
points  of  resemblance  between  the  Eoman  Catholic  and 
Lamistic  systems,  such  as  the  Popedom,  the  celibacy  of 
the  priesthood,  the  worship  of  saints,  confession,  fasting, 
processions,  holy  water,  bells,  rosaries,  mitres,  croziers, 
etc.  These  resemblances  and  coincidences  will  be  more 
fully  noted  in  a  subsequent  Lecture  (see  pp.  2,3^,  339)- 

It  is  possible  that  Tsong  Khapa  may  have  imbibed 
some  of  his  notions  from  his  instructor  at  Amdo  already 
named  (p.  277),  who  was  either  a  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sionary, or  was  familiar  with  the  constitution  of  the 
Romish  hierarchy.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  certain 
that  celibacy,  confession,  and  fasting  existed  in  Buddh- 
ism before  the  teaching  of  Christ,  and  long  before  that 
of  Tsong  Khapa. 

In  fact,  Tsong  Khapa's  reformation  had  been  to  a 
certain  extent  anticipated,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the 
school  of  Kadampa,  founded  in  the  eleventh  century, 
by  Atisha's  disciple,  Brom  Ton  (p.  273). 


2  So  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

Very  little  more  is  known  about  Tseng  Kliapa.  He 
died  in  the  year  141 9,  or,  as  his  dis^ciples  believe, 
ascended  to  heaven,  and  that  ascension  is  still  celebrated 
during  the  festival  of  Lamps  by  all  orthodox  Buddhists 
of  the  Lamistic  Church  (see  pp.  345,  346). 

When  some  time  after  his  death,  he  was  canonized, 
he  was  regarded  by  some  as  an  incarnation  of  Amitabha, 
or  by  others  of  Manju-sri,  or  by  others  of  Vajra-pani 
(see  p.  195),  or  even  of  the  Maha-kala  form  of  Siva, 
and  his  image  is  generally  found  in  the  temples  of  the 
Yellow  sect,  and  often  between  the  two  images  of  the 
Dalai  Lama  and  the  Panchen  Lama,  on  the  right  and 
left  respectively. 

His  followers  of  the  Yellow  school  called  themselves 
Gelugpa  (or  Gelukpa),  '  adherents  of  virtue '  (or,  Gal- 
dan  pa  from  their  monastery)  ;  their  principal  charac- 
teristic being  that  they  adhered  to  the  purer  discipline. 

The  chief  point  of  interest  in  connexion  with  Tseng 
Khapa  is  the  bearing  of  his  reformation  on  the  develop- 
merit  of  the  Avatara  theory  already  mentioned  (see  pp. 
190,  265). 

It  is  said  that  Tsong  Khapa  himself,  like  Gautama 
Buddha,  had  two  chief  pupils,  and  that  he  appointed 
these  two  to  succeed  him  with  equal  authority  as  Heads 
of  the  orthodox  sect.  He  is  also  credited  with  having 
been  the  first  to  promulgate  the  doctrine  that  no  elec- 
tion of  successors  to  his  two  pupils  would  at  any  time  be 
needed,  as  each  of  them  on  dying  would  be  constantly 
re-born  in  a  supernatural  manner. 

There  is,  however,  no  historical  foundation  for  such 
a  statement.     Indeed,  according  to  the  opinion  of  some, 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  AVATARA  THEOEY.     28  I 

the  two  Grand  Lamas  were  merely  the  lineal  successors 
of  the  two  eminent  Lamas,  Atisha  and  his  pupil  Brom 
Ton  (see  p.  273). 

After  al],  it  seems  most  likely  that  the  whole  Avatara 
theory  was  an  invention  of  some  shrewd  Head  Lama, 
who,  perceiving  that  the  strict  enforcement  of  celibacy 
would  prevent  any  hereditary  succession,  like  that  pos- 
sible in  monasteries  of  the  Eed  school,  and  foreseeing 
that  it  would  be  necessary  to  prevent  the  suicidal 
divisions  to  which  the  intrigues  of  an  election  to  the 
HeadshijD  of  monasteries — especially  of  Grand  Lama 
monasteries — would  be  likely  to  give  rise,  bethought 
himself  of  a  compromise  between  hereditary  succession 
and  election.  After  more  than  one  trial,  the  system  was 
found  to  work  so  well  that  it  was  eventually  adopted 
with  little  modification  bv  all  Northern  Buddhists,  and 
even  by  those  of  the  Bed  sect. 

The  date  of  its  invention  is  as  uncertain  as  the  name  of 
the  inventor.  All  that  can  be  said  is,  that  it  cannot  be 
traced  back  to  an  earlier  period  than  the  fifteenth  century. 

And  here  we  must  again  guard  against  the  confusion 
of  thought  likely  to  arise  from  the  usual  practice  of 
translating  Avatara  by  '  incarnation.' 

We  have  seen  that  the  doctrine  of  transmigration 
(gati)  through  various  embodiments,  as  applicable  to  all 
beings,  is  a  fundamental  dogma  both  of  Brahmanism  and 
of  Buddhism,  though  in  Buddhism  transmigration  pro- 
perly means  a  mere  continuous  transformation  and  recon- 
struction of  the  elements  (Skandhas)  of  being  (p.  109). 

The  idea  is  very  dimly,  if  at  all,  adumbrated  in  the 
Mantra  portion  of  the  Veda. 


282  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

It  is  more  clearly  traceable  in  one  of  the  Brahmanas, 
and  distinctly  enunciated  in  the  Chandogya  Upanishad 
(V.  X.  7)  thus  : — '  He  whose  conduct  has  been  good, 
quickly  attains  to  some  good  embodiment  as  a  Brahman, 
Kshatriya,  or  Vaisya.  He  whose  conduct  has  been  bad, 
assumes  an  inferior  embodiment,  as  a  dog,  a  hog,  or  a 
Candala.'     In  Manu  the  theory  is  fully  developed. 

Now  it  is  true  tliat  in  Buddhism  this  kind  of  trans- 
migration may  be  described  as  a  continuous  series  of 
incarnations,  although  genuine  Buddhism  denies  the 
separate  existence  of  a  soul  between  each  incarnation 
(see  p.  1 10). 

But  the  doctrine  of  repeated  incarnations  of  one 
individual  in  six  forms  of  life  is  quite  distinct  from  the 
Tibetan  Avatara  theory.  This  theory  not  only  recog- 
nizes the  separate  existence  of  an  immaterial  essence  or 
soul,  but  also  teaches  that  the  Head  Lama  of  certain 
monasteries  is  the  living,  visible  embodiment,  for  the 
time  being,  of  the  continuous  descent  (avatara)  on  earth 
of  a  portion  of  the  essence  of  the  canonized  Founder  of 
a  monasterv  or  of  a  celestial  Bodhi-sattva  or  Buddha, 
who  will  perpetually  continue  to  descend  from  heaven 
and  re-appear  in  human  forms  for  the  welfare  of  the 
world  (see  p.  109)  \ 

A  similar  idea,  we  know,  prevails  in  India,  w^here 
the  doctrine  of  the  descent  (avatara)  of  portions  of  the 
essence  of  Yishnu  and  other  gods  is  common.  There 
is,  however,  a  noteworthy   distinction    in   the    Hindu 


^  It  is  remarkable  that  the  expression  6  KaralBiis  is  said  of  Clirist  iu 
the  New  Testament. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  AVATAEA  THEORY.     283 

doctrine,  because  the  descents  of  Vishnu  are  not 
continuous  and  uninterrupted  (see  '  Brahmanism  and 
Hinduism,'  pp.  47,  107-1 16) ;  and  although  every  great 
Hindu  teacher  is  supposed  to  be  the  embodiment  of  a 
portion  of  the  essence  of  a  deity,  each  such  embodiment 
is  isolated  and  sing^le. 

And  here  note  that  one  theory  is  that  the  continuous 
descents  of  Bodhi-sattvas  and  Buddhas  into  human  forms 
were  effected  by  means  of  their  third  changeable  body 
(Nirmana-kaya,  p.  247),  which  belonged  to  Bodhi-sattvas 
as  well  as  to  Buddhas ;  or,  according  to  another  theory, 
through  rays  of  light  proceeding  from  the  essences  of 
the  Bodhi-sattvas,  just  as  the  Bodhi-sattvas  themselves 
were  held  by  some  to  have  been  generated  by  rays  of 
light  proceeding  from  the  Dhyani-Buddhas. 

Or  again,  the  Dhyani-Buddhas  might  incarnate  them- 
selves not  only  intermediately  through  their  Dhyani- 
Bodhi-sattvas,  but  by  the  transmission  of  rays  of  light 
directly  from  their  own  essences  into  a  continuous  suc- 
cession of  human  beings  of  pre-eminent  sanctity. 

Hence  it  is  clear  that  the  Avatara  Lama  is  no 
example  of  the  working  of  either  Hindu  metempsy- 
chosis or  of  Buddhist  metamorphosis.  And  indeed, 
re-birth,  through  transmigration  and  transformation, 
according  to  the  ordinary  Hindu  and  Buddhist  theories, 
is  regarded  as  a  kind  of  natural  act,  whereas  continuous 
incarnation  through  the  descent  of  a  portion  of  a 
celestial  essence  into  human  bodies  is  a  supernatural  act. 

Of  course,  as  we  have  stated,  there  were  lower  and 
higher  Avataras,  corresponding  to  the  difference  in  rank 
of  Saints  and  Bodhi-sattvas  (see  pp.  190,  265). 


284  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

Examples  of  the  highest  Avataras  are  the  two  quasi- 
Popes,  or  spiritual  Kings,  who  are  supreme  Lamas  of 
the  Yellow  sect — the  one  residing  at  Lhassa,  and  the 
other  at  Tashi  Lunpo  (Krashi  Lunpo),  about  100  miles 
distant,  in  a  south-westerly  direction,  not  far  from  the 
town  of  Shigatse  (or  Shigatze,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Tsang),  and  not  very  far  from  our  Indian  frontier. 

The  Grand  Lama  at  Lhassa  is  the  Dalai  Lama,  that 
is,  '  the  Ocean-Lama,  or  one  whose  power  and  learning  are 
as  great  as  the  ocean  ; '  a  half  Mongolian  half  Tibetan 
title — Dalai  (or  Tale)  meaning  in  Mongolian  '  Ocean,' 
and  Lama  meaning  in  Tibetan  'a  superior  Teacher' 
(see  note,  p.  262).  He  has  also  the  Tibetan  title  of 
rGyamthso  Einpoche  (Rin-po-ce),  '  Ocean-Jewel '  (the 
Tibetan  equivalent  for  Dalai  being  rGyamthso). 

The  other  Grand  Lama  who  resides  in  the  monastery 
of  Tashi  Lunpo,  is  known  in  Europe  under  the  names 
of  the  Tashi  Lama  (sometimes  written  Teshu  Lama)  or 
Panchen  Lama  (called  in  Mongolian  Bogdo  Lama).  He 
has  the  Tibetan  title  of  Panchen  Rinpoche  (Pan-cen 
Rin-po-ce),  'the  great  Pandit  Jewel'  (Pan  being  equi- 
valent to  Pandita,  and  chen  meaning  great). 

Hence  Tashi  Lunpo  is  the  second  metropolis  of 
Lamism  (see  p.  443).  It  is  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Gedun  grub  pa,  the  chief  pupil  of  the  Reformer  Tsong 
Khapa,  in  1445  (see  p.  291). 

Neither  of  these  Grand  Lamas  are  Popes  in  the  Eu- 
ropean sense,  for  neither  are  elected  by  a  conclave  of 
chief  Lamns. 

The  belief  is  that  when  they  quit  their  bodies  at 
death,  they  re-appear  after  nine  months,  or  occasionally 


DALAI    LAMA — PANCHEN    LAMA.  285 

after  the  second  or  third  year,  in  children  whose  bodies 
they  have  occupied  from  conception. 

The  Dahii  Lamas  are  held  to  be  continuous  re-in- 
carnations of  the  Dhyani-Bodhisattva  Avalokitesvara 
(p.  197),  while  the  Panchen  Lamas  are  continuous  re- 
incarnations of  his  father  the  Dhyani-Buddha  Amitabha 
(p.  203). 

Hence,  as  the  father  is  superior  to  the  son,  and  the 
master  to  the  pupil,  the  Panchen  Lama  at  Tashi 
Lunpo  might  reasonably  have  ranked  above  the  Dalai 
Lama  at  Lhassa.  But,  as  Avalokitesvara  is  the  special 
patron  of  the  Lamistic  Church  in  Tibet,  his  incarnation 
at  Lhassa  is  practically  a  more  important  personage 
than  the  incarnated  Dhyani-Buddha  at  Tashi  Lunpo. 
Some  hold  that  the  Panchen  Lama  is  only  a  re-incarna- 
tion of  Tseng  Khapa,  who  was  identified  with  Mailju-sri. 

It  is  said  that  the  Dalai  Lama  exercises  secular 
authority  over  about  four  millions  of  people,  including 
monks  ;  although  in  the  present  day  political  power 
has  to  a  great  extent  been  taken  from  him  by  the 
Chinese  Government,  which  has  two  permanent  Com- 
missioners or  Kesidents  (called  Ampas)  at  Lhassa,  and 
sometimes  sends  a  special  Envoy  (Kin-Tche)  \ 

The  real  fact  is,  that  since  mere  children,  who  are 
too  young  to  have  received  any  education,  are  elevated 
to  the  Grand  Lamaship,  and  most  of  them  either  die 

^  According  to  the  Times  Correspondent  Lhassa  stands  in  no  closer 
relation  to  China  than  the  least  dependent  of  Indian  States  to  the 
British  Empire  ;  history,  liowever,  proves  that  China  can,  when  her 
interests  demand  it,  assume  a  very  different  position.  The  military 
power  of  China  is  not  great,  but  that  of  the  Lama  Government  is 
nearly  ?i?7.  The  expulsion  of  the  missionaries  Hue  and  Gabet  proves  this. 


286  HIEEARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

naturally  or  are  made  to  die  before  they  have  gained  any 
knowledge,  the  re-incarnated  Lamas  are  generally  unfit 
to  govern,  and  in  monasteries  which  have  an  Avatara 
Grand  Lama,  an  elected  chief  Lama  acts  as  regent  or 
administrator  of  affairs,  while  the  incarnated  Buddha 
is  supposed  to  lose  himself  in  sublime  heights  of  medi- 
tation and  receive  divine  homage  \  This  elected  Eegent 
also  governs  during  the  intervals  of  the  incarnations, 
and  at  Lhassa  he  is  the  real  Head  and  most  powerful 
Tibetan  official.  He  is  called  Nomun-kban  or  Nomin- 
khan  (or  No  min  ban). 

The  manner  in  which  the  Avatara  doctrine  is  carried 
into  practice  has  varied  at  different  times. 

It  is  alleged  that  formerly  the  departing  Lama, 
before  he  transferred  himself  to  another  body,  was  in 
the  habit  of  revealing  where  and  in  what  family  he 
would  be  re-incarnated.  Or  occasionally  it  happened 
that  children  of  two  or  three  years  of  age  called  out 
suddenly,  as  if  impelled  by  some  spiritual  influence, 
'  I  am  a  living  Buddha,  I  am  the  chief  Lama  of  such 
and  such  a  monastery.' 

Or  more  commonly  the  sacred  books  were  consulted  ; 
or  the  official  soothsayers  gave  their  opinion. 

But  the  usual  rule  was  that  at  the  death  of  the 
Dalai  Lama  the  interpretation  of  the  traditions  and 
oracles  about  his  re-birth  and  the  duty  of  discovering 
the  family  in  which  he  was  to  appear  were  committed 
to  the  Panchen  Lama.     When  the  Panchen  Lama  hini- 

^  It  is  said  by  some  that  even  his  excreta  are  held  sacred.  They 
ai'e  dried,  gi-ouiid  to  powder,  and  eitlier  swallowed  or  made  use  of  as 
chai'ms.     Others  deny  this. 


ELECTION    OF   DALAI    LAMA.  287 

self  died,  the  Dalai  Grand  Lama  did  the  same  service 
for  him. 

It  was  only  natural  that  the  holy  land  of  Tibet,  and 
especially  the  holy  city  of  Lhassa,  should  have  been 
most  fruitful  in  re-incarnations,  and  should  even  have 
supplied  foreign  countries  with  them. 

When  Messrs.  Hue  and  Gabet  were  travelling  in 
Mongolia  they  were  about  to  pass  a  certain  Lamistic 
convent  without  stopping,  when  a  Lama  came  out  and 
invited  them  to  enter,  that  they  might  have  an  oppor- 
tunity of  paying  adoration  to  the  saint  enthroned 
within.  '  Our  saint,'  he  said,  '  is  not  a  mere  man.  Li 
our  small  convent  we  have  the  happiness  to  possess  a 
living  Buddha!  Two  years  ago  he  deigned  to  descend 
from  the  holy  mountains  of  Tibet,  and  he  is  now  seven 
years  old.'  These  living  Buddhas,  according  to  M.  Hue, 
are  very  numerous.  Sometimes  a  clever  Lama  builds 
a  small  temple  and  attracts  a  few  disciples.  Then 
by  degrees  his  reputation  increases.  Other  Lamas 
build  their  cells  near  the  temple,  and  bring  it  into 
fashion,  and  proclaim  him  to  be  a  living  Buddha. 

It  is  said,  indeed,  that  some  spiritual  Heads  of 
the  Hierarchy  in  Lhassa  have  contrived  to  instal 
their  illegitimate  children  in  the  Headship  of  distant 
Lamaseries,  so  that  occasionally  the  sujiposed  living 
Buddha  is  really  the  son  of  some  Tibetan  Grand 
Lama. 

In  the  present  day  the  Emperor  of  China  exercises 
so  great  an  influence  in  the  nomination  of  both  the 
Dalai  and  Panchen  Lamas,  that  the  co-operation  of 
the  Lamistic  priesthood  has  become  little  more  than  a 


288  HIEEARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

form.  Still  the  form  is  gone  tliroiigh,  and  the  following 
description  (chiefly  resting  on  the  authority  of  Koeppen 
and  Hue)  may  give  some  idea  of  the  whole  process. 

When  the  Dalai  Lama  dies,  or  rather  when  his  soul 
— which  consists  of  a  portion  of  the  essence  of  Avalo- 
kitesvara — has  cast  off  one  body  with  the  object  of 
entering  another,  the  names  of  all  the  male  children 
born  at  the  time  of  his  death  in  Tibet  have  to  be  sent 
in  to  the  great  monastery  of  La  brang  at  Lhassa,  and  those 
parents  who  have  reason  to  susjiect  that  their  children 
are  re-incarnations,  are  obliged  to  notify  the  fact. 

A  true  decision  cannot  be  arrived  at  until  three 
children  have  been  found,  or  rather  (as  is  practically 
the  case)  until  three  candidates  have  been  set  up  for 
election  who  are  accepted  by  the  Chinese  Government 
or  its  representatives. 

The  first  stage  in  the  process  of  election  is  to  write 
the  names  of  these  three  children  on  lots,  and  place 
them  in  a  golden  urn.  Then  the  Khutuktus  assemble 
together  in  solemn  conclave.  For  six  days  they  remain 
in  retirement.  During  all  that  period  they  are  sup- 
posed to  fast  and  to  be  engaged  in  repeating  prayers. 
On  the  seventh  day,  the  leading  Khutuktu  draws  a  lot, 
and  the  infant  or  child  whose  name  comes  out  is  pro- 
claimed Dalai  Lama.  The  Panchen  Lama  and  the 
representatives  of  China  must  be  present  at  the  time  ^. 

^  lu  the  Times  newspaper  for  June  15,  1888,  is  the  following: 
'  IIow  the  Grand  Lama  of  Tibet  is  apjoointed. — A  recent  number  of  the 
Peking  Gazette  contains  a  memorial  to  the  Emperor  from  the  Chinese 
Resident  at  Lhaf-sa,  stating  that  a  certain  Tibetan  official  called  the 
Nominhan  (see  p.  286  of  this  volume)  had  reported  to  him  that  he 
had  found   three  young  boys  of  remarkable  intelligence   and  acute- 


THE    GRAND    LAMAS    OF   MONGOLIA.  289 

In  a  similar  manner,  the  Panchen  Lamas,  Khutuktus, 
and  ordinary  Avatara  Lamas  are  elected. 

The  Mongolian  mode  of  election  is  thus  described  by 
M.  Hue.    (The  quotation  is  not  literal,  and  is  abridged.) 

The  election  and  enthronization  of  the  living  Buddhas  is  extremely 
curious.  When  a  Grand  Lama  is  '  gone  away,'  that  is  to  say,  is  dead, 
the  event  is  by  no  means  made  a  matter  of  mourning  in  the  convent. 
There  are  no  tears  or  regrets,  for  every  one  knows  that  the  living 
Buddha  will  soon  re-appear.  The  apparent  death  is  only  the  com- 
mencement of  a  new  existence,  a  new  link  added  to  a  boundless  and 
uninterrupted  chain  of  successive  lives — a  simple  palingenesia.  While 
the  saint  is  in  the  chrysalis  state,  his  disciples  are  in  the  greatest 
anxiety,  and  the  grand  point  is  to  discover  the  place  where  their 
master  has  returned  to  life.  If  a  rainbow  appears,  they  consider  it 
as  a  sign  sent  to  them  from  their  Grand  Lama,  to  assist  them  in  their 
researches. 

Every  one  then  goes  to  prayers,  and  especially  the  convent  which 
has  been  widowed  of  its  Buddha  is  incessant  in  its  fastings  and 
orisons,  and  a  troop  of  chosen  Lamas  set  out  to  consult  the  Churchun 
or  diviner  of  hidden  things.  They  relate  to  him  the  time,  place,  and 
circumstances  under  which  the  rainbow  has  appeared :  and  he  then, 
after  reciting  some  prayers,  opens  his  books  of  divination,  and  at  length 
pronounces  his  oracle ;  while  the  Tartars  who  have  come  to  consult 
him,  listen  on  their  knees  with  the  most  profound  devotion. 

*  Your  Grand  Lama,'  they  say,  '  has  returned  to  life  in  Tibet — at 

ness,  into  one  of  whom  beyond  a  doubt  the  spirit  of  the  late  Lama  of 
Tashi  Lunpo  (one  of  the  two  supreme  pontiffs)  had  passed.  Thereupon 
the  Chinese  Eesident  sent  a  report  to  Peking,  asking  that  the  ceremony 
of  selecting  one  of  these  three  children  might  be  permitted.  By  the  time 
the  authority  arrived,  the  Nominhan  with  the  children  had  reached 
Lhassa,  and  a  lucky  day  was  chosen  for  the  ceremony.  The  golden 
vase  in  which  the  lots  are  cast  was  brought  and  placed  before  the 
image  of  the  Emperor.  Prayers  were  chanted  before  the  assembled 
Lamas,  and  the  children  were  conducted  into  the  presence  of  the 
Resident  and  Tibetan  authorities  in  order  that  their  intelligence  and 
difference  from  other  persons  might  be  tested.' 

U 


290  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

such  a  place — in  such  a  family ; '  aud  when  the  poor  Mongols  have 
heard  the  oracle,  they  return  full  of  joy  to  their  convent,  to  announce 
the  happy  news.  Sometimes  the  living  Buddha  announces  himself, 
at  an  age  when  other  infants  cannot  articulate  a  word ;  hut  whether 
his  place  of  abode  be  found  by  means  of  the  rainbow,  or  by  this 
spontaneous  revelation,  it  is  always  at  a  considerable  distance,  and  in 
a  country  difficult  of  access.  A  grand  procession  is  then  made,  headed 
by  the  king,  or  the  greatest  man  in  the  country,  to  fetch  the  young 
living  Buddha.  The  Mongols  often  go  through  incredible  fatigue 
and  hardships,  traverse  frightful  deserts,  and  sometimes,  after  being 
plundered  by  robbers,  strij^ped  of  everything,  and  compelled  to  return, 
set  out  again  with  undiminished  courage.  When  the  living  Buddha 
is  found,  however,  he  is  not  saluted  Grand  Lama  without  a  previous 
examination.  Doubtless,  the  simple  Mongols  are  in  this  matter  often 
the  dupes  of  those  who  have  an  interest  in  making  a  Grand  Lama  of 
the  baby.  The  title  of  the  living  Buddha  having  been  confirmed,  he 
is  conducted  in  triumph  to  the  monastery  of  wliich  he  is  to  become 
Grand  Lama;  and  as  he  passes  along,  the  Tartars  come  in  great 
trooj)s  and  prostrate  themselves  before  him,  and  bring  him  offerings. 
As  soon  as  he  arrives  at  the  convent,  he  is  placed  on  the  altar,  and 
every  Tartar,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  in  the  land,  bows  down 
before  this  child.  There  is  no  Tartar  kingdom  which  does  not  possess 
one  of  these  living  Buddhas ;  but  there  is  always  another  Grand 
Lama,  chosen  among  the  members  of  the  royal  family,  with  whom  the 
real  govei'nment  of  the  convent  rests.  The  famous  maxim  '  Le  roi 
regne  et  ne  gouverne  pas '  has  been  of  old  application  among  the 
Tartars.     [See  note  p.  306  of  these  Lectures.] 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  Lamistic  community  Hke 
to  keep  up  the  fiction  of  these  re-incarnations ;  and 
therefore  they  pretend  to  ascertain  the  genuineness  of 
every  re-birth  by  clear  signs.  Hence  before  a  re-born 
saint  is  installed,  his  identity  is  established  by  his 
passing  a  kind  of  examination  before  a  solemn  assembly, 
thousands  of  witnesses  being  present. 

Some  of  the  books,  clothes,  and  sacred  or  secular 
utensils  which  the   dead  Lama  was   in  the  habit  of 


LIST   OF    DALAI    LAMAS.  29 1 

using,  are  brought  and  mixed  with  others.  The  child 
is  then  asked  to  pick  out  the  true  ones,  or  he  has  to 
answer  questions  as  to  the  events  in  his  previous  state 
of  existence.  If  the  rephes  are  satisfactory,  he  is  in- 
stalled as  the  re-born  Lama  amid  great  rejoicings. 

Koeppen  asserts  that  no  positive  information  as 
to  the  relationship  between  the  Dalai  and  Panchen 
Lamas  is  forthcoming.  Some  maintain  that  both 
hierarchical  systems  developed  simultaneously.  Some 
say  that  the  Panchen  Lama  of  Tashi  Lunpo  was  the 
first  Grand  Avatara  Lama,  while  others  hold  that  the 
elevation  of  the  Panchen  Lamas  took  place  later,  and 
only  resulted  from  the  increase  in  importance  of  the 
Tashi  Lunpo  monaster}^  in  which  they  reside  (p.  284). 

The  Dalai  Lamas  may  be  enumerated  as  follow  :- — 

The  first  is  said  to  have  been  Gedun  grub  pa  (other- 
wise pronounced  Gedun  dubpa).  Probably  he  was  the 
nephew  and  chief  pupil  of  the  Reformer  Tsong  Khapa. 
ut  was  he  who  founded  the  monastery  of  Tashi  Lunpo 
in  1445,  ^^^  ^^6  is  by  some  therefore  called  the  first 
Lama  of  that  monastery.  His  birth  is  supposed  to  have 
occurred  in  1391  or  1419,  and  his  death  in  1473  or  1476. 
Then  he  was  born  again  after  ten  months  as  Gedun 
GyamThso  (or  Gedun  Yamtso),  the  second  Grand  Lama, 
who  is  held  by  some  to  have  been  the  real  founder 
of  the  Avatara  system  of  perpetual  succession  by  re- 
incarnations. He  filled  the  Dalai  Lama  Chair  from 
1474  or  1476  to  1540  or  1542. 

The  third  embodiment  took  place  in  1543,  and  bore 
the  name  Sod  nam  GyamThso  (or  Sod  nam  Yamtso), 
'  sea  of  virtue.'      He  was   the   first   who   really  took 

u  2 


2C)2  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

the  half  Mongolian  title  of  Dalai  Lama.  Moreover,  he 
laboured  hard  to  spread  Buddhism  among  the  Mon- 
golians, and  founded  the  first  Great  Lama's  Chair  in 
Mono'olia. 

o 

In  his  fourth  re-birth,  the  Dalai  Lama  took  the  name 
of  Yon  Jan  Yam  Thso,  '  ocean  of  merit,'  and  lived  up  to 
his  14th  year  (until  1602)  in  Mongolia,  when  he  moved 
to  Lhassa. 

The  fifth  Dalai  Lama  was  the  great  Navang  Lob- 
sang  (strictly  Ngag  dBang  bLo  bSang),  'wise  speaker 
or  eloquent  sage,'  who  is  the  most  celebrated  of  all. 
According  to  some  he  was  the  first  real  Dalai  Lama, 
those  who  preceded  him  being  merely  supreme  Lamas 
of  the  Y^ellow  school.  His  career  lasted  from  161 7  to 
1682.  He  was  a  kind  of  Lamistic  Lniocent.  But  his 
long  minority  led  to  political  disturbances.  Li  the  end, 
Navano-  Lobsano;  overcame  all  difficulties,  and  as  a  sign 
that  the  power  of  a  king  of  Tibet  had  been  made 
over  to  him,  built  on  one  summit  of  the  triple  hill  Po- 
tala,  where  once  the  royal  castle  had  stood,  that  palatial 
monastery — that  wonderful  Lamistic  Vatican — in  which 
he   still    resides  in  his   continual   re-incarnations   (see 

p.  330). 

Indeed  the  successors  of  Tseng  Khapa  had  good  reason 
to  be  satisfied  with  their  position  at  that  time.  They 
had  overshadowed  the  Pied  sect,  or  reduced  it  to  com- 
parative unimportance.  They  had  won  over  Mongolia, 
which  greatly  aided  them  in  their  struggle  for  domi- 
nion. Monastery  after  monastery  arose  there.  The 
sacred  books  had  been  translated  into  the  Mongolian 
lauouafre,  and   thousands   of  Mongolians   came   every 


DISCOVERY   OF    PllESENT    DALAI    LAMA.  293 

year  with  ricli  presents  to  worship  the  re-horn  Lamas 
at  Lhassa,  or  sent  their  sons  there  for  education. 

When  Navang  Lobsang  died,  his  death  was  con- 
cealed by  the  Regent,  and  great  intriguing  followed. 
In  the  interregnum  two  Dalai  Lamas  were  successively 
set  up  and  deposed.  These  are  not  reckoned  in  the 
list  of  legitimate  Dalai  Lamas. 

Then  a  child  was  chosen,  who  had  all  the  signs  of 
being  called  to  the  Lamaship.  This  was  Lobsang 
Kalsang  Yamthso;  he  is  reckoned  the  sixth  Dalai  Lama. 
He  died  in  1758,  after  gaining  some  repute  as  a  writer. 

The  seventh  Dalai  Lama  was  Lobsang  Jampal 
(or  Champa!)  Yamthso,  who  is  believed  to  have  died  in 
either  1805  or  1808. 

The  next  was  Luno-tog;  YamThso,  who  died  a  mere 
infant  in  18 15  or  18 16.  He  had  three  child-successors, 
who  were  all  killed  as  minors  by  the  acting  Regent. 
The  last  child  was  made  away  with  in  1837. 

If  these  three  children  are  reckoned,  Ge  Mure 
YamThso  must  be  regarded  as  the  eleventh  Dalai 
Lama.  He  died  in  1855.  The  twelfth  was  born  in 
1856,  and  seems  to  have  lived  till   1874. 

The  discovery  of  the  present  Dalai  Lama  is  thus 
related  by  Sarat  Chandra  Das. 

After  the  death  of  an  incarnate  Lama,  his  soul  is  said  ordinarily  to 
remain  in  the  spiritual  world  for  a  space  (called  Bardo)  of  at  least  forty- 
nine  days.  In  1875,  one  year  after  the  demise  of  the  late  Dalai  Lama, 
Thinle  Gya-tsho,  the  Eegency  and  the  College  of  Cardinals  at  Lhassa 
consulted  the  celebrated  oracle  of  Xachung  Chhoskyong  about  the 
re-appearance  of  the  Dalai.  The  oracle  declared  that  the  Grand  Lama 
could  only  be  discovered  by  a  monk  of  the  purest  morals.  Accord- 
ingly the  Shar-tse  Klianpo  of  the  Galdan  monastery,  who  was  well 


294  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

known  for  his  virtuous  character  and  his  profound  knowledge  of  the 
sacred  books,  proceeded  to  Chhoikhor  Gya,  where  he  sat  in  profound 
meditation  for  fixll  seven  days.  On  the  night  of  the  last  day  he  saw 
a  x^sion,  in  which  a  voice  from  heaven  directed  him  to  go  and  see 
a  miraculous  sight  in  the  Ya-tsho  lake  of  Chhoikhor  Gya.  Awaking 
from  his  sleep,  the  Khanpo  went  to  the  lake,  where  in  the  crystal-like 
water  he  saw  the  incarnate  Gi'and  Lama  sitting  in  the  lap  of  his 
mother  and  caressed  by  his  father.  The  house  with  its  furniture  was 
also  visible.  All  on  a  sudden  this  mirage-like  appearance  disappeared, 
and  he  heard  the  neighing  of  a  horse.  So  much  of  his  dream  being 
fulfilled,  he  proceeded  on  the  horse  to  the  province  of  Kong-po,  and,  on 
the  way,  he  happened  to  call  at  the  house  of  a  rich  and  respectable  family 
of  the  district  of  Tag-po.  Here  he  recognized  the  house,  the  family, 
and  the  child  he  had  seen  in  the  lake,  and  at  once  declared  that  the 
real  end  of  his  journey  Avas  obtained.  On  his  report  the  Government 
officials  and  the  College  of  Cardinals,  headed  by  the  Regent,  visited 
Tag-po  and  escorted  the  infant  with  its  parents  in  great  pomp  to 
the  palace  of  Rigyal  near  Lhassa.  The  princely  child  was  only  one 
year  old  when  he  was  discovered.  He  is  now  ten,  and  bears  the  name 
of  Nag-wang  Lo-ssaug  Thub-dan  Gya-tsho,  '  the  lord  of  speech,  and 
powerful  ocean  of  wisdom.'     (This  extract  is  abbreviated.) 

A  similar  list  of  the  Panchen  Lamas  who  have  reigned 
at  Tashi  Lunpo  has  not  been  given.  When  Mr.  Sarat 
Chandra  Das  was  there  in  August,  1882,  the  then 
Panchen  Lama  died  from  grief  (so  it  was  said)  because 
he  had  not  been  allowed  to  consecrate  the  young  Dalai 
Lama,  according  to  previous  custom. 

The  next  important  Lama  in  great  Tibet  (after  the 
Dalai  and  Panchen  Lamas)  is  the  Head  Lama  or  Khanpo 
of  the  monastery  of  Galdan  (Gahdan) — the  oldest  mon- 
astery of  the  Yellow  sect,  founded  in  the  year  1409  by 
the  reformer  Tsong  Khapa  (see  p.  2  78),  who  was  the 
first  Abbot.  It  once  had  8,000  inhabitants.  The  body 
of  Tsong  Khapa  is  said  to  be  there  visible,  preserved 
from  corruption   and  miraculously  poised   in  the   air. 


LAMISM    IN    LADAK    AND    NEPAL.  295 

Prints  of  his  hands  and  feet  and  his  bed  are  also 
shown  to  pilgrims  (see  p.  441). 

But  the  Grand  Lama  of  the  Yellow  school  who  comes 
next  in  rank  to  the  Dalai  and  Panchen  Lamas  is  the 
Head  of  the  monastery  of  Kurun  (also  written  Kuren) 
or  Urga,  in  the  land  of  the  Khalkhas  in  Mongolia.  His 
perpetual  re-incarnation  began  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
He  is  generally  called  by  the  Mongolians  Maidari  or 
Gegen  Khutuktu,  but  his  proper  title  is  Je  Tsun  Dampa 
(or  Tampa)  Taranatha.  A  Taranatha  Lama  (born  in 
1575)  completed  a  work  on  Buddhism  in  the  Tibetan 
language  in  1608  (Markham's  Tibet,  xlviii). 

There  is  also  a  celebrated  Avatara  Lama  at  Kuku 
khotun  in  Tartary  who  is  a  perpetual  re-incarnation 
of  Maiiju-sri  Khutuktu. 

Indeed  Mongolia  is  a  kind  of  paradise  in  which  the 
monks  of  Lamism  enjoy  perennial  bhss,for  the  Mongolians 
are  simpler  and  more  full  of  faith  than  the  Tibetans. 

Another  Grand  Lama  is  the  Dharma-raja  of  Bhutan 
(p.  297),  and  another  Great  Lama  is  at  Peking  in 
China  (see  p.  299), 

As  to  Ladak  (the  capital  of  which  is  Le  or  Leh),  this  is 
the  most  western  part  of  Tibet  that  has  adopted  Lamism. 
Asoka's  mission  penetrated  to  Ladak,  so  that  the  whole 
land  in  king  Kanishka's  time  (that  is,  in  the  first  cen- 
tury) was  Buddhistic.  Moreover,  the  Buddhist  religion 
(both  Bed  sect  and  Yellow)  has  maintained  itself  there 
until  now,  while  in  the  neighbouring  countries  of  Kash- 
mir, Kafirstan,  the  Panjab,  etc.,  it  has  been  displaced  by 
Brahmanism,  Islam,  and  Saktism,  etc.  We  have  little 
knowledge  of  the  ancient  history  of  Ladak.      It  has 


296  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

a  large  and  ancient  monastery  at  Lama  Yurru,  near  the 
Indus — in  which  is  an  enormous  image  of  the  cloven- 
headed  Avalokitesvara — another  at  Hemis,  and  another 
at  Hanle.  (See  Cunningham's  '  Ladak/  Mrs.  Bridges' 
'Travels/  and  p:  433  of  this  volume.) 

In  Tangut,  all  round  the  blue  lake  (Kuku  Nilr), 
Lamistic  Buddhism  has  been  the  established  religion 
since  the  end  of  the  ninth  century.  It  seems  to  have 
taken  a  great  start  upwards  in  the  succeeding  four 
centuries,  for  it  was  in  the  province  of  Amdo,  as  before 
mentioned  (p.  277),  that  the  great  Beformer  commenced 
his  career.  In  the  North-eastern  corner  close  to  China 
is  the  Lamasery  of  Kunbum  (Kumbum),  where  Tseng 
Khapa  was  born.  When  his  reputation  increased,  Lamas 
from  all  parts  made  pilgrimages  there.  Sarat  Chandra 
Das  states  that  it  is  inhabited  by  9,000  Lamas  of  the 
Yellow  sect.  Koeppen  says  that  it  has  a  University 
with  four  Faculties,  and  an  important  printing-press, 
and  that  at  the  head  of  it  is  an  incarnated  living 
Buddha.  The  Lamas  from  Amdo  are  said  by  Koeppen 
to  be  more  highly-gifted,  intelligent,  learned,  and  re- 
ligious than  the  monks  of  other  monasteries.  They  are 
intrusted  in  Lhassa  with  the  most  important  ofl&ces,  and 
are  employed  in  the  education  of  the  infant  representa- 
tives of  Buddha.  Amdo  is  still  almost  a  terra  incognita. 

Passing  on  to  Nepal — this  country  probably  adopted 
Buddliism  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
It  is  said  that  Asoka's  missionaries  found  their  way 
there ;  but  there  is  no  proof  that  Buddhism  really 
flourished  in  Nepal  till  the  seventh  century,  and  even 
then  it  never  existed  except  in  conjunction  with  Brah- 


LAMISM    IN   BHUTAN    AND    SIKKIM.  297 

manism.  It  is  probable  that  Buddhist  monasteries  and 
Brahmanical  temples  always  adjoined  each  other.  In- 
deed since  the  immigration  of  the  Hindus  into  Nepal, 
and  especially  since  the  invasion  of  the  Gorkhas,  there 
have  always  been  two  nationalities,  two  languages, 
two  literatures,  two  religions  in  contact  with  each  other. 

In  recent  times  Brahmanism  has  gained  the  pre- 
dominance as  the  State-religion,  and  Buddhism  has 
degenerated,  though  it  is  everywhere  tolerated. 

It  is  a  question  whether  the  spiritual  supremacy  of 
the  Tibetan  Grand  Lama  has  ever  been  acknowledged 
in  Nepal  proper.  But,  according  to  some,  the  Dalai 
Lama  formerly  had  a  legate  or  representative  in  the 
largest  and  oldest  Buddhistic  temple  of  Khatmandu — 
the  temple  of  Svayambhu-nath,  who  is  here  at  once 
Adi-Buddha  and  Siva.  The  Dalai  Lama  also  claimed 
the  ownership  of  this  temple,  which,  he  maintained, 
had  been  dependent  on  him  from  the  earliest  times. 
But  it  is  certain  that,  even  if  the  Tibetan  Legate 
ever  possessed  the  authority  arrogated  by  him,  he  was 
compelled  by  the  Gorkhas  to  abandon  his  claims. 
Nevertheless  the  Tibetan  tribes  now  in  Nepal  still 
adhere  to  Buddhism.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
Newars,  who  are  the  original  possessors  of  the  great 
valley  of  Nepal.  They  profess  a  kind  of  Buddhism, 
though  they  reject  the  Lamas,  and  have  priests  of  their 
own,  whom  they  call  Bandya  (see  note  p.  263). 

With  regard  to  Bhutan  (capital  town  Punakha)  it  is 
said  to  have  become  Buddhist  about  350  years  ago. 
Its  spiritual  ruler  and  incarnated  saint  is  called  Dharma- 
raja  (or  Lama  Kinpoche).     He  belongs  to  the  Ked-cap 


298  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

school,  and  calls  himself  Chief  of  all  the  monks  of  the 
Dugpa  sect.  His  subordination  to  the  Dalai  Lama 
is  little  more  than  nominal.  The  temporal  Governor 
is  called  Depa-raja  (Deb-raja). 

The  following  titles  engraved  on  the  Dharma-rilja's 
seal  of  office  will  give  some  idea  of  his  pretensions  : — 

'  I  am  the  Chief  of  the  realm.  Defender  of  the  Faith. 
Equal  to  Sarasvati  in  learning.  Chief  of  all  the 
Buddhas.  Head-expounder  of  the  Silstras.  Caster 
out  of  devils.  Most  learned  in  the  holy  Laws.  An 
Avatar  of  God.  Absolver  of  sins.  Head  of  the  best 
of  all  religions.'     (See  Dr.  Wright's  Nepal.) 

It  is  said  that  there  are  about  10,000  monks,  and 
about  50,000  Buddhist  lay  families  in  Bhutan.  Many 
of  the  monks  do  not  live  in  monasteries,  but  hold  offices 
under  the  Government. 

Next,  as  to  Sikkim — of  which  Darjiling,  now  the 
Sanitarium  of  the  Bengal  Government,  once  formed  a 
part.  This  is  a  small  boundary  country  between  Bhutan 
and  Nepal.  It  seems  to  have  adopted  Buddhism  about 
the  same  time  as  Bhutan,  or  perhaps  a  century  earlier. 
The  Lrimas  there  belong  to  the  Dugpa  Bed  sect 
(p.  268).  The  aborigines,  called  Lepchas,  though  they 
venerate  the  Lamas,  are  really  only  half  Buddhists ; 
and  their  priests,  called  Bijna  (Bhikshu  ?)  beggars,  are 
half  devil-exorcists.  The  oldest  temple  is  that  of 
Pemyangchi  (see  p.  432).  Next  come  the  important 
monasteries  of  Tassiding,  Changachelling,  Kaklang,  and 
Tamlung  (one  residence  of  the  Baja,  the  other  being  at 
Chumbi  in  Tibetan  territory).  There  is  also  one  near 
Darjiling. 


LAMISM   IN    CHINA.  299 

We  ought  finally  to  advert  briefly  to  China  and 
Japan.  It  is  noteworthy  that  next  in  rank  to  the 
Mongolian  Grand  Lama  comes  the  Head  Lama  of  the 
great  monastery  of  Peking,  who  represents  Lamism  in 
that  country.  Koeppen  informs  us  that  in  China,  for 
at  least  six  centuries,  there  have  been  two  classes  of 
Buddhist  monks  side  by  side,  viz.  first,  the  Ho-shang 
(p.  92)  or  Chinese  monks,  who  had  become  naturalized 
in  the  year  65  after  Christ;  and,  secondly,  the  Lamas. 
These  two  schools  are  not  distinguished  so  much  by 
difierence  of  doctrine  and  discipline,  as  by  the  position 
they  hold  in  the  empire.  The  Ho-shang  are  little  more 
than  separate  fraternities  of  monks,  tolerated  by  the 
State.  They  have  no  hierarchical  organization,  and 
no  bishops,  but  each  monastery  stands  independently, 
and  has  no  superior  except  its  own  Abbot. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Lamas  constitute  in  China 
a  public  organized  society,  acknowledged  to  a  great 
extent  and  supported  by  the  State,  and  possessing 
certain  s^Diritual  and  temporal  rights  over  particular 
districts.  It  is  said,  however,  that  the  Lamistic  hie- 
rarchy in  China  is  subordinated  to  the  Government 
Committee  for  foreign  affairs. 

It  is  further  stated  that  three  great  monasteries 
situated  in  or  near  Peking  are  exclusively  reserved 
for  the  Tibetan  and  Mongolian  Lamas,  and  that  of 
the  three  Lamas  who  preside  over  these  the  chief  is 
the  before-mentioned  representative  of  Lamism  at  the 
Government  Court  (p.  295). 

In  China  proper,  within  the  eighteen  Provinces,  the 
number  of  the  Lama  monasteries  is  said  to  be  small. 


300  HIERARCHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

and  these  are  generally  to  be  found  in  the  Provinces 
nearest  to  Tibet  and  Mongolia. 

As  to  Japan,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  Lamistic 
form  of  Buddhism  has  penetrated  into  that  country. 
In  all  probability  Buddhist  writings  were  introduced 
there  from  Corea  about  a.d.  552  \  but  it  is  certain  that 
Buddhism  did  not  gain  much  ascendency  in  Japan  till 
the  ninth  century,  and  even  then  was  not  able  to  displace 
either  Shintoism  or  Confucianism  and  the  woi'ship 
of  deceased  ancestors.  In  fact,  Buddhism  commended 
itself  to  the  Japanese,  as  it  did  to  the  people  of  every 
country  to  which  it  spread  by  its  receptivity  ;  and  just 
as  in  Tibet,  it  adapted  itself  to  the  Shamanism  wdiich 
previously  existed  there,  so  in  Japan  it  adopted  Shin- 
toism, and  turned  some  of  the  Shinto  deities  into  Bodhi- 
sattvas.  Then  followed  the  inevitable  splitting  up  of 
Japanese  Buddhism,  as  of  all  other  religious  systems, 
through  disagreements  and  divisions ;  and  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  various  sects  were  developed.  As  to 
these,  we  need  only  note  that  while  some  sects  adopt 
the  early  Atheistic  and  Agnostic  form  of  Buddhism 
with  its  doctrine  of  Nirvana,  the  principal  sect  called 
Shin  is  decidedly  Theistic. 

Sir  Edward  Keed,  in  his  work  on  Japan  (i.  84), 
informs  us  that  he  met  a  learned  priest  named  Akamatz 
in  company  with  the  Archbishop  of  the  Western  sect. 
This  priest's  account  of  the  Shin  sect  coincides  with 
the  information  which  I  myself  received  from  a  learned 
Japanese  priest  at  Oxford. 

^  Article  on  Japan  in  the  last  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Bi'itannica. 


BUDDHISM    IN    JAPAN    AND   RUSSIAN   TEERITORY.    301 

It  appears  that  the  members  of  this  sect  believe 
in  Amitabha  Buddha  as  a  Being  of  infinite  hght  and 
goodness,  their  chief  prayer-formula  being  Namo  Amida 
(for  Amita)  Butsu,  '  Keverence  to  the  Infinite  Buddha,' 
that  is  to  Amitabha  \  They  place  faith  in  the  love 
and  mercy  of  Amita  Buddha,  or  rather  in  his  readi- 
ness to  receive  them  into  his  paradise  called  Sukhavati 
(see  pp.  183,  204).  At  the  same  time  they  are  required 
to  lead  moral  lives,  and  salvation  is  practically  only 
obtainable  through  their  own  works.  The  monks  are 
allowed  to  marry  and  to  eat  flesh  and  fish. 

Their  doctrines  have  many  points  of  contact  with 
Christianity.  The  late  Mr.  Kasawara  of  Japan,  who 
belonged  to  this  sect  and  was  highly  esteemed  by  all 
who  knew  him  in  England,  said  to  a  Christian  friend 
that  *  it  gave  him  great  pleasure  to  meet  in  the  Cospels 
many  coincidences  with  the  aspirations  of  his  own 
Buddhist  faith,  and  that  he  greatly  admired  the  idea 
of  the  Christ  as  the  concrete  expression  of  the  Inscru- 
table Essence  in  its  twofold  form  of  infinite  Light  and 
infinite  Love.' 

Another  well  known  sect  called  Nichiren  was  founded 
by  a  celebrated  student  and  teacher  named  Nichiren. 
The  Nichirens  have  been  called  the  Methodists  or  Ke- 
vivalists  of  Japan.  They  are  very  strict,  and  esteem 
the  book  of  the  Law  as  the  highest  object  of  venera- 
tion. Their  prayer  is  to  the  following  effect : — '  Glory 
be  to  the  salvation-bringing  book  of  the  Law ! ' 

^  Accordiug  to  one  of  my  Japanese  informants  Butsu  should  be 
Bbutsu,  and  the  formula  should  be  translated,  '  Reverence  to  the 
Infinite  Beino:.' 


302  HIERAECHICAL   BUDDHISM. 

Doubtless  Japan  once  had  a  peculiar  hierarchical 
organization  of  its  own,  which  crumbled  away  not  long 
ago,  and  need  not  now  be  described.  Even  in  the 
present  day  each  sect  may  have  its  leader  or  Head, 
who  exercises  a  kind  of  episcopal  superintendence  like 
that  of  a  Bishop  or  Archbishop. 

We  have  already  mentioned  (p.  200)  that  a  female 
form  of  Avalokitesvara  is  worshipped  in  Japan  and 
China  as  the  goddess  of  mercy.  Her  name  in  China 
is  Kwan-yin,  and  in  Japan  Kwan-non ;  and  she  is  re- 
presented as  possessing  any  number  of  eyes  and  arms 
up  to  a  thousand,  and  sometimes  three  faces. 

In  concluding  this  Lecture  we  may  note  that  Kussia 
is  the  only  European  country  to  which  Lamistic  Bud- 
dhism has  hitherto  penetrated.  There  are  adherents 
of  the  Dalai  Lama  among  the  Burat  (Buryad)  tribes 
on  the  Baikal  Lake,  and  among  the  Kalmuks  on  the 
Volga.  Koeppen  informs  us  that  the  chief  temple 
and  monastery  of  the  former  is  on  a  lake  thirty  versts 
to  the  North-west  of  Selenginsk,  and  that  the  presiding 
monk  is  called  the  Khanpo  Pandita  and  claims  to  be 
an  Avatara  Lama.  The  Chief  Lama  of  the  latter  is 
said  to  be  appointed  by  the  Bussian  Government. 

Hierarchical  Buddhism  naturally  leads  us  on  to  the 
subject  of  ceremonial  Buddhism,  which  must  be  reserved 
for  the  next  Lecture. 


LECTUEE  XII. 

Ceremonial  and  Piitualistic  Buddhism,. 

Having  in  the  last  Lecture  described  the  manner 
in  which  hierarchical  systems  were  established  in  various 
Buddhist  countries,  we  are  naturally  led  on  to  consider 
in  the  present  Lecture  the  development  of  what  may 
be  called  '  Ceremonial  and  Eitualistic  Buddhism  ' ;  for 
no  hierarchy  can  maintain  its  hold  over  the  masses 
anywhere  without  the  aid  of  outward  manifestations, 
rites,  ceremonies,  and  appeals  to  the  senses. 

Early  Buddhism  was,  as  we  have  already  shown, 
vehemently  opposed,  not  only  to  all  sacerdotalism,  but 
to  all  merely  external  ritualistic  and  ceremonial  obser- 
vances. It  swept  away  the  whole  Vedic  ritual — the 
whole  sacrificial  system  of  the  Brahmans  ;  it  rejected  all 
penitential  austerities  and  painful  bodily  mortifications; 
it  denounced  every  form  of  superstition,  idolatry,  and 
priestcraft ;  it  maintained  that  to  lead  a  life  of  purity 
and  high  morality  was  better  than  all  the  forms  and 
ceremonies  of  religion. 

But  the  very  vehemence  of  its  opposition  tended  to 
bring  about  a  reaction.  Indeed,  the  history  of  all 
religious  movements  proves  that  the  teaching  of  ex- 
treme doctrines  of  any  kind  is  almost  invariably  fol- 
lowed by  a  Nemesis,  though  the  teacher  of  them  may 
himself  not  live  to  see  it. 


304        CEKEMONIAL   AND    RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

At  the  outset  a  reformer  of  the  ultra  type  is  sure 
to  gain  adherents  by  his  enthusiasm  and  earnestness, 
as  well  as  by  his  ardour  in  condemning  abuses,  but  a 
time  is  almost  certain  to  come  when  his  followers  will 
themselves  lapse  into  the  identical  practices  which  it 
was  his  great  object  to  denounce. 

At  all  events,  it  is  well  known  that  in  the  pre- 
sent day  the  Buddha's  followers  have  invented  a  mass 
of  complicated  forms  and  ceremonies  wholly  out  of 
keeping  and  incompatible  with  the  j)nrer  and  simpler 
system  which  he  himself  sought  to  establish. 

In  point  of  fact  the  Buddha  in  promulgating  his 
creed  did  not  take  into  account  the  impossibility  of 
eradicating  certain  deep-seated  cravings  inherent  in 
human  nature,  which  every  religion  aiming  at  general 
acceptance  must  reckon  with  and  satisfy : — for  example, 
the  craving  for  the  visible,  for  the  audible,  and  for 
the  tangible ;  the  craving  for  some  concrete  imperson- 
ation of  infinite  goodness  and  power  ;  the  craving  for 
freedom  from  personal  responsibility  and  for  its  trans- 
ference to  a  priesthood ;  the  craving  for  deliverance 
from  the  pains  and  penalties  of  sin ;  the  craving  for 
an  infallible  guide  in  all  matters  of  faith  and  doc- 
trine. 

Later  Buddhism,  on  the  other  hand,  set  itself  to 
satisfy  these  longings — these  ineradicable  yearnings 
of  the  human  heart.  It  felt  that  it  could  not  establish 
itself  on  a  firm  foundation  without  hierarchical  organ- 
izations, and  it  could  not  maintain  these  without 
external  forms,  ceremonies,  and  ritual  observances.  It 
therefore  turned  the  simple  monastic  brotherhood  into 


RELIGIOUS  SUrERSTITION  IN  TIBET  AND  MONGOLIA.    305 

a  caste  of  priests,  and  it  attracted  and  gratified  the 
senses  of  unthinking  multitudes  by  a  great  variety  of 
religious  rites,  usages,  and  symbols,  many  of  which  are 
quite  unique,  while  nearly  all  are  accompanied  with 
superstitious  practices  implying  an  amount  of  igno- 
rance and  credulity  on  the  part  of  the  people,  quite 
unparalleled. 

This  corrupt  phase  of  Buddhism  is  especially  domin- 
ant in  Tibet,  Mongolia,  and  Northern  countries.  In 
real  truth  it  might  be  aflSrmed  of  every  Buddhist  in 
Tibet  that  religious  superstition  colours  all  his  thoughts, 
words,  and  deeds.  It  is  interwoven  with  the  tissue  of 
his  daily  life,  and  is  part  and  parcel  of  his  worldly  oc- 
cupations. It  is  equally  part  and  parcel  of  the  national 
life,  and  enters  into  every  Government  transaction.  Fur- 
thermore, it  is  fostered  by  art  and  science,  and  minis- 
tered to  by  painting  and  sculpture.  Nay,  it  is  stamped 
on  Nature  itself.  It  is  impressed  on  rocks,  stones, 
and  trees.  It  finds  its  way  to  the  summit  of  snow- 
clad  mountains,  to  the  recesses  of  inaccessible  ravines, 
and  to  the  extremities  of  remote  deserts. 

To  crown  all,  it  might  be  affirmed  that  in  Tibet 
religious  superstition  goes  on  by  machinery,  quite  inde- 
pendently of  the  human  will.  It  is  kept  in  continual 
activity,  night  and  day,  by  the  flapping  of  flags,  and  by 
the  revolution  of  innumerable  wheels  and  cylinders, 
which  are  acted  on  by  the  forces  of  wind  and  water. 

It  may  easily,  therefore,  be  imagined  that  to  give 
an  exhaustive  account  of  all  the  ceremonies  and  super- 
stitious practices  of  Tibetan,  or,  as  it  may  be  called, 
Lamistic   Buddhism,  would   require    the    command  of 

X 


306        CEREMONIAL    AND    RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

unlimited  time.  They  have  been  treated  of  by  Koeppen 
in  his  second  volume,  and  by  Schlagintweit  in  liis 
'  Buddliism  in  Tibet,'  and  have  been  illustrated  by  de- 
scriptions in  Hue's  travels \  in  Markham's  account  of 
the  travels  of  Bogle,  Turner,  and  Manning,  and  in  the 
recent  narrative  of  Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das'  Journey.  All 
I  can  attempt  is  to  give  a  concise  account  of  some  of 
the  chief  Lamistic  observances,  taking  the  books  just 
named  as  my  authorities,  and  adding  whatever  infor- 
mation I  have  been  able  to  collect  myself  from  other 
sources,  while  travelling  in  Buddhist  countries. 

We  must,  however,  guard  against  the  notion  that 
ceremonial  observances  are  confined  to  Tibet  and 
Northern  regions.  They  are  now  more  or  less  preva- 
lent in  Burma  and  Ceylon,  which  have  adopted  much 
of  the  Maha-yana  system,  and  to  these  countries  we 
must  2;ive  our  first  attention.  Even  the  ceremonies 
now  observed  at  the  reception  of  novices  and  monks  in 
Burma  and  Ceylon  are  less  simple  than  the  early 
admission-forms  already  described  (pp.  77,  yS,  256). 

Of  course  every  novice  has  to  cut  off  his  hair.  He 
does  this  to  prove  that  he  is  ready  to  give  up  the  most 
beautiful  and  highly-prized  of  all  his  personal  ornaments 
for  the  sake  of  a  religious  life. 

But  other  forms  have  to  be  gone  through  in  the  pre- 
sent day,  and  I  now  give  an  account  of  the  admission- 
ceremony  of  a  novice — as  performed  in  Burma — based 


^  My  quotations  from  the  travels  of  Hue  and  Gabet  liave  been 
made  from  excellent  translations  by  ]\Irs.  Percy  Sinnefc  and  W. 
Hazlitt,  but  I  have  been  compelled  to  abbreviate  the  extracts. 


ADMISSION-CEEEMONIES   IN   BURMA.  2)^y 

on  the  description  in  the  third  chapter  of  Shway  Yoe's 
interesting  volume  called  '  the  Burman  \' 

It  is  well  understood  that,  according  to  the  strict 
letter  of  the  law  (p.  77  of  the  present  Lectures),  a  boy 
ought  not  to  be  admitted  to  the  novitiate  until  he  is 
fifteen,  but  in  modern  times,  the  admission  often  takes 
place  at  twelve  or  even  eleven  years  of  age,  the  belief 
being  that  until  a  boy  is  so  admitted  he  cannot  claim 
to  be  more  than  an  aniraah 

The  first  point  to  be  noted  is  that  his  admission  in- 
volves the  dropping  of  his  secular  name,  and  the  receiv- 
ing of  another  title  to  mark  that  it  is  then  possible  for 
him  to  escape  the  sufiering  of  life.  As  he  is  sure  to 
have  been  a  scholar  or  pupil  in  a  monastery  (Kyoung) 
before  applying  to  be  admitted  as  a  novice,  he  has 
learnt  beforehand  all  the  forms  of  worship  and  much 
that  will  be  required  of  him  during  his  monastic  life ; 
for  instance,  that  he  is  to  address  senior  monks  in  a 
particular  manner  and  to  wait  upon  them  respectfully  ; 
that  he  is  to  walk  through  the  streets  keeping  his  eyes 
fixed  on  the  OTouncI,  without  o;azino;  about,  even  if  he 
have  to  pass  a  pageant  or  attractive  spectacle  of  any 
kind  ;  that  he  is  to  wear  his  garments  in  the  prescribed 
fashion  ;  that  he  is  to  eat  with  moderation  and  dignity. 

On  the  day  appointed  for  the  induction-ceremony, 
the  young  neo]3hyte  dresses  in  his  gayest  clothes,  and 
mounted  on  a  pony,  passes  at  a  foot's  pace  through 
the  town  or  village.  A  band  of  music  goes  before  him, 
and  all  his   friends   dressed   in    their   best    garments, 

^  Published  by  Messrs.  Macmillan  &  Co.  Shway  Yoe  is  au  assumed 
name.     The  author's  real  name  is  Scott. 

X  2 


308        CEREMONIAL   AND    RITUALISTIC    BUDDHISM. 

follow  in  a  crowd,  the  young  men  dancing  and  singing, 
the  girls  smiling  and  laughing.  Thus  he  proceeds  in 
procession  to  the  houses  of  his  relations,  to  bid  them 
farewell.  Of  course  the  introductory  observance  is 
intended  as  a  kind  of  dramatic  imitation  of  Gautama 
Buddha's  celebrated  abandonment  of  his  own  family 
and  worldly  associates,  called  the  Mahabhinishkramana, 
'  the  great  going  forth  from  home '  (see  p.  28  of  this 
volume).  When  the  round  of  visits  is  finished,  the 
would-be  novice  turns  back  with  all  his  companions 
to  his  parents'  house.  There  he  finds  a  large  number 
of  persons  assembled,  and  among  them  the  Head  of 
the  monastery,  with  several  of  his  brother  monks. 
These  are  seated  on  a  raised  dais  in  front  of  which 
are  the  ofierings  intended  for  presentation  to  them, 
consisting  of  fruit,  cooked  food,  yellow  cloth,  etc. 

The  monks  ('  Talapoins ')  seated  in  a  row,  care- 
fully hold  up  their  large  fan-like  screens  to  shut 
out  the  female  portion  of  the  assemblage  from  their 
view.  Portions  of  the  Vinaya  (p.  62  of  this  volume) 
are  then  recited,  after  which  the  would-be  novice  is 
made  to  throw  off"  all  his  fine  clothes  and  bind  a  piece 
of  white  cloth  round  his  loins.  Then  his  hair  is  cut 
off  close,  and  his  head  is  carefully  shaved  and  washed. 
Next  he  is  taken  to  a  bath,  and  after  immersion  in 
pure  water,  is  brought  once  more,  partially  clothed, 
before  the  assembled  monks.  Prostrating  himself  three 
times  before  them,  he  raises  his  hands  in  reverence, 
and,  using  the  regular  Pali  form  of  words,  asks  to  be 
admitted  to  the  holy  brotherhood.  Upon  that  the 
Head  of  the  monastery  presents  him  with  the  yellow 


ADMISSION-CEEEMONIES  IN  CEYLON.     BOY-PUPILS.       309 

monastic  garments.  These  are  duly  put  on,  and  the 
mendicant's  bowl  is  hung  round  his  neck.  The  cere- 
mom'  concludes  by  the  formal  announcement  of  his 
having  become  a  member  of  the  monastery. 

The  present  admission-ceremony  in  Ceylon  appears 
to  be  of  a  simpler  character.  In  fact  it  differs  little 
from  the  ancient  form.  Those  boys  who  are  destined 
for  the  novitiate  usually  begin  their  connexion  with 
the  monastery  to  which  they  intend  to  belong  by  first 
becoming  pupils  in  tlie  monastery-school.  The  devo- 
tion of  the  monkhood  to  the  education  of  mere  boys 
was  perhaps  one  of  the  best  results  of  the  progress 
and  development  of  Buddhism.  In  monasteries,  all 
boys  may  learn  to  read  and  write  \  There  also  they 
gain  some  experience  of  monastic  duties  and  require- 
ments, so  that  when  the  time  comes  for  any  pupil  to 
enter  the  novitiate,  his  preparedness  is  takeu  for 
granted.  He  merely  makes  known  his  intention  to 
a  superior  or  senior  monk.  Then  having  shaved  his 
head,  and  undergone  the  ceremony  of  bathing,  the 
applicant,  who  has  furnished  himself  with  the  proper 
yellow  robes,  presents  them  to  the  superior  monk,  and 
requests  to  be  allowed  to  receive  them,  again  that  he 
may  become  a  novice.  Next,  on  his  reciting  the  three- 
refuge  formulary,  and  the  ten  prohibitions,  he  is  per- 
mitted to  take  back  the  monkish  garments  and  to  put 
them  on.  He  is  then  formally  admitted,  and  his  admis- 
sion announced  to  the  other  members  of  the  monastery 


^  I  was  told  when  in  Ceylon,  that  many  monasteries  in  the  Kan- 
dyan  provinces  had  misappropriated  their  endowments  and  dropped  the 
schools,  which  they  were  bound  to  keep  up. 


3IO        CEREMONIAL    AND    RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

(Hardy's  Eastern  Monacliism,  p.  23).  It  may  be  noted 
that  the  monkish  garments  do  not  include  a  head- 
covering  as  in  Northern  countries. 

As  to  the  ceremony  of  admission  to  the  full 
monkhood,  it  differs  so  little  from  the  ancient  rite  (de- 
scribed at  p.  79),  that  no  further  description  need  here 
be  given. 

With  regard  to  the  religious  services  performed  in  the 
monastic  institutions  of  modern  times,  they  are,  of  course, 
a  great  advance  on  the  simple  formularies  used  in  early 
days,  before  the  establishment  and  organization  of  large 
monasteries. 

The  earlier  and  purer  Buddhism,  as  we  have  seen, 
had  only  one  religious  formula,  and  that  was  a  simple 
expression  of  veneration  for  the  three  jewels — the 
Buddha,  his  Law,  and  his  Order  of  Monks  (p.  78). 

Any  form  of  worship  was  altogether  out  of  place,  if 
not  a  mere  mockery,  when  there  was  no  supreme  Being 
to  worship ;  when  the  Buddha  himself,  who  never 
claimed  to  be  more  than  a  perfected  man,  had  passed 
away  into  non-existence,  and  when  all  that  he  left  be- 
hind was  the  great  ideal  of  his  own  memory,  to  be 
venerated  and  imitated. 

When,  however,  monastic  establishments  were  or- 
ganized and  the  doctrine  became  developed,  a  great 
development  of  worship  took  place. 

To  illustrate  this  I  submit  a  description  of  daily  life 
in  a  Burmese  monastery,  based  on  the  information  given 
by  Shway  Yoe  (p.  307),  and  often  using  his  words. 

It  appears  that  every  monastic  community  in  Burma 
is  roused  a  little  before  daylight  by  the  sound  of  a  big 


OBSERVANCES    IN    BURMESE    MONASTERIES.         3 1  I 

bell,  beaten  with  a  wooden  mallet.  Each  monk  has 
then  to  rise,  rinse  out  his  mouth,  wash  his  hands  and 
face,  arrange  his  dress  (the  same  in  which  he  has  slept 
all  night)  and  recite  a  few  formularies,  among  which  is 
one  to  the  following  effect : — '  How  great  a  favour  has 
the  Lord  Buddha  bestowed  upon  me  in  manifesting  to 
me  his  law,  through  the  observance  of  which  I  may 
escape  the  purgatorial  penalties  of  hell  and  secure 
salvation!'  All  the  members  of  the  fraternity  then 
station  themselves  before  the  image  of  the  Buddha, 
with  the  Abbot  at  theu'  head,  and  the  rest  of  the 
brotherhood,  full  monks,  novices  and  scholars,  according 
to  their  order.  This  done,  they  proceed  to  intone  the 
morning  service.  At  its  conclusion  each  stands  before 
the  Head  of  the  monastery,  and  pledges  himself  to  ob- 
serve during  the  day  all  the  rules  and  precepts  incum- 
bent upon  him.  They  then  separate — the  pupils  and 
novices  to  sweep  the  floor  of  the  monastery,  bring  drink- 
ing water,  filter  it,  etc.,  the  more  advanced  novices  and 
full  monks  to  tend  the  sacred  trees;  the  elders  to  medi- 
tate in  solitude  on  the  miseries  of  life,  such  meditation 
being  beyond  all  other  actions  meritorious.  Some  gatlier 
flowers  and  ofler  them  before  the  rehc-shrine  (Dagaba). 
Then  comes  a  repast,  preceded  by  a  grace  to  the 
effect  that  the  food  is  eaten  to  satisfy  bodily  wants, 
not  to  please  the  appetite ;  that  garments  are  used  to 
cover  nakedness,  not  for  vanity ;  that  health  is  desired 
to  give  strength  for  the  performance  of  religious  wor- 
ship and  meditation.  After  the  meal,  all  devote  them- 
selves to  study  or  to  teaching.  Then  arranging  them- 
selves  in  file,  they  set   out  with  the  Abbot  at  their 


312        CEREMONIAL    AND   RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

head  to  receive  their  food  (not  beg).  Silently  they 
move  on  through  the  streets,  fixing  their  eyes  steadily 
on  the  ground  six  feet  before  them,  meditating  on  the 
vanity  and  mutability  of  all  things,  and  only  halting 
when  a  layman  emerges  from  some  door  to  pour  his 
contribution  of  rice  or  fruit  or  vegetables  into  their 
alms-bowls.  The  gift  received,  not  a  word  or  a 
syllable  of  thanks  is  uttered ;  for  is  it  not  the  receivers 
who  confer  the  favour  and  not  the  givers  ?  In  this  way 
they  circle  back  to  the  monastery. 

On  their  return  from  their  perambulation  a  portion 
of  the  food  is  ofiered  to  the  Buddha,  and  then  all  proceed 
to  eat  the  remainder,  consisting  perhaps  of  cooked  rice, 
boiled  peas,  fish,  cocoa-nut  cakes,  cucumbers,  or  even 
curried  flesh  and  fowl,  usually  wrapped  separately  in 
plantain-leaves.  Next  the  bowls  are  washed,  and  a 
few  hymns  are  chanted  before  the  Buddha's  image. 
During  the  succeeding  hour  the  boy-scholars  are  allowed 
to  play  about,  while  the  monks  pass  their  time  in  con- 
versation, and  the  Abbot  receives  people  who  come  to 
pay  their  respects.  All  visitors  prostrate  themselves 
before  him  three  times,  once  for  the  Buddha,  once  for 
the  Law,  and  once  for  the  Monkhood.  The  Abbot  in 
return  says :  '  May  the  supporter '  (so  lie  calls  all  lay- 
men ;  compare  p.  89),  '  as  a  reward  for  merit,  be  freed 
from  the  three  calamities  (of  war,  pestilence,  and 
famine)!'  At  about  half-past  eleven  the  last  regular 
meal  of  the  day  is  eaten.  Monks  are  forbidden  to  eat 
after  noon.  When  the  mid-day  meal  is  over,  all  return 
to  work.  Some  undertake  the  teaching  of  the  boy- 
scholars.     Others  read  the  texts  of  the  Tri-pitaka  with 


OBSERVANCES   IN    BURMESE   MONASTERIES,  313 

their  commentaries,  or  superintend  the  writers  who  are 
copying  manuscripts.  Some  of  the  older  members  of 
the  monastery  talk  with  the  idlers,  who  are  to  be  found 
lounging  about  the  precincts,  and  some  sink  into  deep 
meditation,  which  probably  ends  in  deep  sleep. 

Yet  this  j^rofound  meditation  is  believed  to  be  all  im- 
portant, for  is  it  not  the  path  to  Arhatship,  to  Nirvana, 
and  to  the  acquisition  of  supernatural  faculties  (see  p. 
245)?  Other  monks  tell  the  beads  of  their  rosaries 
and  repeat  the  prescribed  formularies,  such  as  :  '  All  is 
changeful,  all  is  sorrowful,  all  is  unreal,'  followed  by 
invocations  to  the  three  holies  (see  p.  175).  Between 
three  and  four  o'clock  the  lessons  are  finished,  and  the 
scholars  perform  any  domestic  duties  required  in  the 
monastery.  This  is  the  chief  return  for  the  teaching 
they  receive.  Then  most  of  the  pupils  go  to  their  own 
homes  for  dinner.  As  to  the  youthful  novices  or  junior 
monks,  these  are  all  obliged  to  fast  like  the  full  monks. 
Many  of  them  go  out  with  some  of  the  senior  monks 
for  a  solemn  walk.  Then  at  sunset  the  far-reaching 
notes  of  the  bell  summon  the  walkers  back  to  the 
monastery.  All  must  be  within  the  walls  before  the 
sun  goes  down.  The  day's  duties  now  draw  to  a  close. 
The  boy-pupils  are  made  to  repeat  all  they  have  learned 
during  the  day,  and  some  of  the  Pali  rituals  are  chanted 
'  with  spasmodic  energy.'  At  half-past  eight  or  nine 
there  are  further  recitations  before  the  image  of  the 
Buddha.  All  assemble,  as  in  the  morning,  and  together 
intone  the  hymns.  When  the  last  sound  of  the  chant 
has  died  away,  one  of  the  novices  stands  up  and  pro- 
claims the  hour,  day  of  the  week,  day  of  the  month, 


314        CEREMONIAL    AND    RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

and  number  of  the  year.  Then  all  bow  before  the 
Buddha's  image,  and  thrice  before  the  Head  of  the 
monastery,  and  retire  to  rest  (see  Shway  Yoe's  'Burman'). 

It  is  noteworthy  that  severe  asceticism  and  painful 
austerities — as  practised  among  the  Hindus  from  the 
earliest  times  up  to  the  present  day  (described  at 
pp.  228-230  of  this  volume) — form  no  part  of  the 
duties  of  Buddhist  monks ;  for  Buddhism  has  never 
sanctioned  bodily  torture,  as  Brahmanism  has  done. 

We  now  pass  on  to  a  description  of  the  observances 
usual  during  the  period  of  Vassa  (see  pp.  82-84). 

Mr.  Dickson  has  given  us  some  valuable  notes 
on  the  method  of  keeping  this  season  in  Ceylon,  and 
I  venture  to  found  a  short  narrative  on  the  information 
he  has  communicated  \ 

It  seems  that  the  villagfers  of  Cevlon  esteem  it  a 
privilege  and  a  work  of  great  merit  to  send  for  one  or 
two  monk-priests  from  a  monastery  and  to  minister  to 
their  wants,  as  well  as  listen  to  their  preaching  and 
recitations  during  Vassa. 

The  season  begins  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  eighth 
month  ;  that  is,  on  the  day  of  full  moon  in  the  month 
Ashadha  (June,  July).  Sometimes  two  or  three  vil- 
lages join  in  inviting  a  monk-priest  to  live  with  them 
for  the  whole  three  months.  They  prepare  a  chamber 
for  his  sleeping  accommodation,  a  room  for  his  meals, 
a  temporary  chapel  for  the  reception  of  the  Buddha's 
image,  of  the  relic-casket  and  of  the  sacred  books,  and 
a  place  in  which  he  can  recite  the  law  and  explain  it. 

^  Notes  illustrative  of  Buddhism  as  the  daily  religion  of  the 
Buddhists  of  Cej'lon,  by  J.  F.  Dickson,  M.  A.  Oxon. 


OBSERVANCES    IN    CEYLON    DURING    YASSA.  315 

On  the  first  day  of  Yassa  the  Yillagers  put  on  their 
holiday  dresses,  and  set  off  with  music,  dancers,  singers, 
and  flags  for  the  monastery,  where  the  priest,  whom 
they  desire  to  invite,  resides.  Thence  they  conduct 
him  in  procession  to  their  homes.  His  first  act,  after 
his  arrival,  is  to  set  up  the  image  and  arrange  the  relic- 
casket  and  books.  An  altar  is  placed  in  front  of  the 
image,  and  on  this  the  people  proceed  to  make  their 
offerings  of  flowers  and  perfumes.  Next  every  villager 
contributes  something  for  the  priest's  food,  such  as  tea, 
sugar,  honeycomb,  orange-juice,  and  the  like.  The 
priest,  in  return,  pronounces  a  benediction,  and  says:  — 
'  By  virtue  of  this  first  offering  made  for  the  sake  of  the 
Buddha,  who  is  like  unto  the  sun  of  gods  and  men,  and 
by  virtue  of  this  second  offering  made  to  the  monkhood, 
which  is  like  a  field  of  merit,  may  you  henceforth  be 
delivered  from  the  evils  of  birth  in  the  place  of  torment, 
in  the  world  of  beasts,  in  the  world  of  ghosts,  and  in 
the  world  of  demons,  and  inherit  the  bliss  of  those  who 
ascend  and  descend  through  the  worlds  of  gods  till  you 
are  born  again  in  the  world  of  men  (see  p.  21)!' 

Then  the  monk-priest  proceeds  to  the  preaching- 
chamber,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  chair  with  a 
cushion.  He  takes  his  seat,  and,  holding  a  screen  before 
his  face  to  prevent  his  attention  being  distracted,  com- 
mences his  recitations.  The  people  sit  on  the  floor — 
the  men  on  one  side,  the  women  and  children  on  the 
other.  First  he  repeats  the  three-refuge  formula  (p.  78) 
and  the  five  prohibitions  (p.  1 26),  the  people  repeating 
after  him.  Next  he  recites  some  favourite  passage 
from    the    discourses    of    Buddha,    the    one    generally 


3l6        CEREMONIAL    AND    RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

selected  being  the  Nidhi-kanda  Sutta  (see  p.  129), 
If  any  listener  interposes  a  remark,  or  hints  that  he 
does  not  understand,  the  priest  explains  the  meaning. 
The  people  then  make  obeisance  and  depart. 

The  monk-priest  next  repeats  to  himself  the  ap- 
pointed Pirit  for  the  first  day  of  Vassa — namely,  the 
Mangala-sutta,  Eatna-sutta,  and  Karaniya-metta-sutta 
(see  p.  3 1 8),  after  which  he  retires  to  rest  for  a  few  hours. 
Kising  before  daybreak,  he  meditates  on  the  virtues  of 
Buddha,  on  goodwill  towards  all  living  beings,  on  the 
impurities  of  the  body,  and  on  death,  walking  up  and 
down  in  his  own  chamber,  or  in  any  place  suitable  for 
perambulation.  Next  he  goes  to  the  temporary  chapel, 
and  prostrating  himself  before  the  shrine,  says,  '  I  wor- 
ship continually  all  the  relic-shrines,  the  sacred  Bodhi- 
tree,  and  the  images  of  Buddha.  I  reverence  the  three 
jewels'  (see  p.  175).  He  then  arranges  his  offering 
of  flowers,  and  places  these  with  a  small  portion  of  his 
morning  meal  on  the  altar.  His  meal  being  concluded, 
he  teaches  the  children  of  the  villagers,  or  he  prepares 
for  the  mid-day  and  evening  preaching  (bana). 

These  preachings  are  generally  well  attended,  especi- 
ally on  the  four  Poya  days  (p.  257).  On  the  new-moon 
and  full-moon  days,  the  priest  must  go  to  the  nearest 
monastery  and  join  in  the  Piltimokkha  (see  p.  84) ;  and 
on  the  full-moon  day,  which  terminates  the  three  months 
of  Yassa,  he  must  go  there  again  as  before,  but  on  that 
occasion,  addressing  the  assembled  monks,  lie  must 
say  : — '  Venerable  Sirs,  I  have  duly  finished  the  Vassa  ; 
if  you  have  any  doubt  about  it,  speak,  and  tell  me  in 
what  I  have  erred.'    If  no  one  speaks  he  is  held  to  have 


CEREMONY    CALLED    PIIHT.  317 

fulfilled  his  duties  faultlessly.  Then  returning  and 
taking  with  him  a  second  priest,  the  two  together  per- 
form the  Katri-bana  or  mid-night  service,  which  con- 
cludes the  ceremonies  of  Vassa.  Two  pulpits,  made  of 
four  upright  posts,  supporting  small  platforms,  are 
erected,  and  the  people  from  the  neighbouring  villages, 
dressed  in  their  holiday  attire,  attend  in  large  numbers. 
These  nocturnal  recitations  are  commonly  continued  for 
about  five  hours. 

Some  account  should  next  be  given  of  the  ceremony 
called  Pirit,  which  is  performed  in  Ceylon  and  Burma 
durmg  Vassa,  and  also  at  other  times.  The  name 
Pirit  is  corrupted  from  the  Pali  jjaritta,  which  again 
is  supposed  to  be  connected  with  Sanskrit  j)aritra  or 
paritrana,  '  protection  \'  We  must  premise  that  this 
ceremony  had  its  origin  in  tlie  fear  of  evil  spirits 
and  demons  everywhere  prevalent  in  the  East  (see 
p.  218) ;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  Buddhism 
recognizes  no  order  of  beings,  called  demons,  created 
by  God,  and  eternally  separate  in  nature  from  men. 

Demons  are  beings  who  are  regarded  as  created 
by  men  J  rather  than  by  God ;  for  they  may  have  been 
men  in  their  last  state  of  existence  and  may  become 
men  again  (see  p.  122).  They  are,  however,  repre- 
sented as  cherishing  spiteful  and  malevolent  feelings 
against  the  superior  race  to  which  they  once  belonged  ; 
and  all  kinds  of  safeguards  and  counteracting  influences 


^  This  is  the  derivation  given  by  Childers  ;  one  might  otherwise 
have  been  inclined  to  suspect  some  connexion  witli  Preta,  a  ghost 
(pp.  121,  219  of  this  volume). 


3l8        CEREMONIAL    AND    RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

are  thought  to  he  needed  to  protect  human  heings  from 
their  mahgnity. 

This  is  quite  in  keeping  with  the  Hindu  theory, 
which  holds  that  when  a  man  addicted  to  any  par- 
ticular vice  dies,  his  evil  nature  never  dies,  hut  assumes 
another  personality  and  lives  after  him  as  a  demon. 
And  this  applies  equally  to  women,  so  that  the  re- 
sulting demons  may  be  of  either  sex,  and  the  female 
is  held  to  be  more  spiteful  than  the  male. 

The  most  effective  of  all  safeguards  against  the 
machinations  of  such  malignant  beings,  is  believed  to 
be  the  recitation  or  intoning  of  the  Buddha's  Law, 
and  especially  of  the  Sutta  (Sutra)  division  of  it  al- 
ready described  (p.  62).  And  of  this  division  there 
are  choice  portions — twenty-nine  in  number  ^ — supposed 
to  possess  greater  prophylactic  potency  than  other 
portions.  Collectively,  they  constitute  what  is  called 
the  Pirit,  and  of  these,  three  are  most  commonly  re- 
cited : — the  Mangala-sutta,  the  Eatna-sutta,  and  the 
Karaniya-metta-sutta.  Part  of  the  first  of  these  has 
been  already  given  (at  p.  129  of  this  volume). 

Part  of  the  second  or  'Jewel'  Sutta  (translated  by 
Childers)  runs  thus  : — 

*  All  spirits  here  assembled, — those  of  earth  and  those  of  air, — let 
all  such  be  joyful ;  let  them  listen  attentively  to  my  Avords. 

'  Therefore  hear  me,  O  ye  spirits ;  be  friendly  to  the  race  of  men  ; 
for  day  and  night  they  bring  you  their  offerings,  therefore  keep 
diligent  watch  over  them. 

^  The  texts  and  commentaries  of  some  of  these  were  collected  by  M. 
Grimblot,  and  translated  with  notes  by  M.  Leon  Feer,  in  the  Journal 
Asiatique.  The  Tibetan  Pirit  is  said  to  consist  of  only  tliirteen 
Suttas. 


MAHA-BANA    PIRIT    CEEEMONY.  319 

'Whatsoever  treasure  exists  here  or  in  other  worlds,  whatsoever 
glorious  jewels  in  the  heavens,  there  is  none  like  Buddha, 

'  Buddha  is  this  glorious  jewel.  May  this  truth  bring  prosperity  ! 
There  is  nought  like  this  doctrine.  The  Law  is  this  glorious  jewel. 
May  this  truth  bring  prosperity ! 

'  The  disciples  of  Buddha,  worthy  to  receive  gifts,  the  priesthood  is 
this  glorious  jewel.     May  this  truth  bring  prosperity ! 

'  Their  old.  karma  is  destroyed,  no  new  karma  is  produced.  Their 
hearts  no  longer  cleaving  to  future  life,  their  seed  of  exi&tence  des- 
troyed, their  desires  quenched,  the  righteous  are  extinguished  like 
this  lamp.  The  pi'iesthood  is  this  glorious  jewel.  May  this  truth 
bring  prosperity  !  Ye  spirits  here  assembled — those  of  earth  and  those 
of  air — let  us  bow  before  Buddha — let  us  bow  before  the  Law — let  us 
bow  before  the  Monkhood.' 

Part  of  the  third  or  Karaniya-metta-sutta  runs  as 
follows  : — 

This  is  what  should  be  done  by  him  who  is  wise  in  seeking  his  own 
good.  Contented  and  cheerful,  not  oppressed  with  the  cares  of  this 
world,  not  burdened  with  riches,  tranquil,  discreet,  not  arrogant,  not 
greedy  for  gifts,  let  him  not  do  any  mean  action  for  which  others  who 
are  wise  might  reprove  him.  Let  all  creatures  be  happy  and  prosperous ; 
let  them  be  of  joyful  mind.  Let  no  man  in  any  place  deceive  another, 
nor  let  him  be  harsh  towards  any  one;  let  him  not,  out  of  anger  or 
resentment,  wish  ill  to  his  neighbour.  As  a  mother,  so  long  as  she  lives, 
watches  over  her  child,  her  only  child,  so  among  all  beings  let  bound- 
less goodwill  prevail.  Let  goodwill  without  measure,  impartial,  unmixed 
with  enmity,  prevail  throughout  the  world,  above,  below,  around. 

The  Eev.  D.  J.  Gogerley  witnessed  the  performance 
of  a  great  Pirit  ceremony  in  Ceylon  (Hardy's  Mona- 
chism,  p.  240).  Taking  his  account  and  that  of  Mr. 
Dickson,  I  have  compiled  the  following  brief  description 
of  the  Maha-bana  Pirit,  '  great  Pirit  recitation ' : — 

So  soon  as  the  sun  has  set  crowds  of  people  arrive 
at  the  Pecitation-Hall,  bringing  oil-lainps  made  out 
of  cocoanut-shells.  The  Hall  is  decorated,  and  a  canopy, 
shaped  like  a  pagoda,  is  erected  over  the  pulpits,  wdiich 


320         CEREMONIAL    AND    RITUALISTIC    BUDDHISM. 

are  placed  on  a  raised  platform.  When  darkness 
supervenes  a  blaze  of  light  illuminates  the  Hall.  A 
relic  of  the  Buddha  is  deposited  on  the  platform,  and 
a  sacred  thread  is  fastened  round  the  Hall,  one  ex- 
tremity of  it  being  brought  close  to  the  relic  and  to 
the  Eeciters.  On  the  morning  of  the  next  day,  the 
recitations  begin.  One  of  the  Reciters  repeats  the 
three-refuge  formula,  and  the  five  commandments  (see 
pp.  jS,  126).  Then  incense  is  burnt  round  the  plat- 
form, and  the  musicians  outside  the  Hall  strike  up 
a  lively  air.  Next,  the  formula  of  '  the  twelve  suc- 
cessive causes  of  existence'  (see  p.  102)  is  intoned,  and 
a  hymn  of  victory  chanted. 

The  recitation  of  the  Pirit  continues  uninterruptedly, 
day  and  night,  for  seven  days.  Twenty-four  priests 
are  employed,  two  of  whom  are  constantly  seated  on 
the  platform  and  engaged  in  reciting.  Moreover  three 
times  in  each  day — at  sunrise,  mid-day,  and  sunset — 
they  all  assemble  together  and  chant  in  chorus.  Of 
course,  when  the  recitation  of  the  Suttas  constituting 
the  Pirit  is  concluded,  it  is  recommenced,  and  in  this 
way  all  the  Suttas  are  recited  again  and  again.  On 
the  morning  of  the  seventh  day  a  messenger  is  sent 
to  a  neighbouring  temple  to  invite  the  attendance  ot 
the  gods.  Then  by  a  stretch  of  the  imagination  certain 
of  the  gods  and  spirits  are  believed  to  answer  the 
summons,  and  on  their  supposed  arrival,  the  protective 
Suttas  are  chanted  more  energetically  than  ever  till 
the  morning  of  the  eighth  day,  when  a  benediction 
concludes  the  ceremony,  and  offerings  of  robes  are  made 
to  the  priest-reciters. 


ADMISSION-CEKEMONIES  IN  TIBET  AND  MONGOLIA.      32 1 

We  now  pass  on  to  Tibet  and  Mongolia. 

The  ceremonies  of  admission  to  the  monkhood  in 
those  countries  do  not  deviate  sufficiently  from  the 
practices  just  described  to  require  special  notice. 

With  regard,  however,  to  the  dress  of  Lamistic 
monks  after  their  admission  to  the  Order,  the  ancient 
rule,  as  we  have  seen,  obliged  them  to  wear  only  three 
garments  of  a  dirty  yellowish  colour,  made  out  of  rags, 
or  picked  up  in  cemeteries  or  on  dust  heaps.  But  the 
necessities  of  a  colder  climate  have  compelled  the 
Lamas  to  increase  their  official  vestments,  and  the 
higher  Lamas  sometimes  wear  bright  silken  robes  en- 
riched with  ornament.  The  law  is  sufficiently  obeyed 
by  putting  a  patch  or  two  at  one  corner. 

A  full  equipment  is  supposed  to  consist  of  an  under 
vestment,  a  sort  of  tunic  worn  over  it,  a  mantle,  a  kind 
of  scarf  worn  over  the  left  shoulder,  a  loose  robe  brought 
round  over  the  same  shoulder,  and  a  cap  ^  The  right 
shoulder  is  rarely  bare,  as  it  generally  is  in  Southern 
Buddhist  countries. 

The  colour  of  these  six  articles  of  clothing,  especially 
of  the  cap,  is  yellow  or  red,  according  to  the  sect  to 
which  a  monk  belongs. 

The  cap  is  an  important  mark  of  sectarian  difference, 
and  is  of  various  forms,  and  when  it  has  five  points, 
has  been  compared  to  a  bishop's  mitre,  but  the  five 
points  really  denote  the  five  Dhyani-Buddhas  and  their 
Bodhi-sattvas. 

^  A  cold  climate  necessitates  the  addition  of  trousers,  and  boots 
and  occasionally  shoes  are  worn. 

Y 


32  2        CEREMONIAL   AND    RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

Part  of  every  full  monk's  equipment  in  Tibet  is  a 
peculiar  instrument,  made  of  bronze  or  other  metal, 
and  called  a  Dorje  (Sanskrit  Vajra,  '  a  thunderbolt'), 
the  employment  of  which  for  religious  objects  is 
peculiar  to  Northern  Buddhism.  It  is  shaped  like 
the  imaginary  thunderbolt  of  the  gods  Indra  and 
Siva — that  is,  it  consists  of  a  short  bar,  about  four 
inches  long,  the  two  extremities  of  which  swell  out 
in  globular  form,  or  like  small  oval  cages  formed  of 
hoops  of  metal.  The  original  Dorje  is  supposed  to 
have  fallen  direct  from  Indra's  heaven,  and  to  have  been 
preserved  in  a  monastery  near  Lhassa,  called  Sera  (pp. 
278,  442).  According  to  another  legend,  the  original 
instrument  belonged  to  Gautama  Buddha  himself,  and 
on  his  passing  away  into  non-existence,  transported 
itself  through  the  air  from  India  into  Tibet.  The 
consecrated  imitations  of  it  are  innumerable.  Their 
primary  use  is  for  exorcising  and  driving  away  evil 
spirits,  especially  in  the  j^^rformance  of  ceremonies 
and  repetition  of  prayers — the  instrument  being  then 
held  between  the  fingers  and  thumb  and  waved  back- 
w^ards  and  forwards,  or  from  side  to  side. 

The  efficacy  of  the  Dorje  in  securing  good  fortune 
and  warding  off  evil  influences  of  all  kinds  is  supposed 
to  be  of  wide  application.  The  idea  was  really  borrowed 
from  Saivism  or  from  the  Tantra  system,  introduced 
through  Neprd  by  the  Bed  sect.  It  is  easy  to  un- 
derstand the  enormous  power  supposed  to  belong- 
to  a  priesthood  which  claimed  to  be  the  wielders  of  a 
formidable  thunderbolt,  sent  to  them  directly  from 
heaven. 


USE   OF   THE   DORJE   AND   PRAYER-BELL.  323 

No  wonder  that  the  original  Dorje  preserved  at  the 
Sera  monastery  has  become  an  object  of  actual  worship. 
According  to  M.  Hue,  countless  pilgrims  prostrate  them- 
selves before  it ;  and  at  the  New  Year's  festival,  on  the 
2  7th  day  of  the  first  month,  it  is  carried  in  procession 
with  great  pomp  to  Lhassa, — to  the  two  centres  of 
Lamism — Potala  and  La  brang.  On  its  way  there,  the 
mystical  implement  is  adored  by  the  whole  population, 
male  and  female  (ii.  221). 

Below  is  an  engraving  of  a  Dorje  which  I  brought 
from  Darjiling. 


It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  fierce  Bodhi-sattva 
Yajra-pani  (see  p.  201  of  this  volume)  is  represented 
holding  a  similar  Dorje  in  his  right  hand  in  his  charac- 
ter of  subduer  of  evil  spirits.  In  some  representations 
the  evil  demons  are  denoted  by  serpents. 

Another  important  part  of  a  full  monk's  equipment  in 
Tibet  is  the  Prayer-bell  (called  Drilbu)  employed  at  the 
performance  of  daily  religious  ceremonies,  and  rung  to 
accompany  the  repetition  and  chanting  of  prayers,  or 
to  fill  up  the  intervals  of  worship.  It  often  has  half 
a  Dorje  as  a  handle,  or  the  handle  is  ornamented  with 
various  mystical  symbols  carved  on  it.  The  object  of 
ringing  bells  during  worship  is  to  call  the  attention  of 

t  Y  2 


324        CEREMONIAL   AND    RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

the  beings  who  are  worshipped,  or  to  keep  off  evil 
spirits  by  combining  noise  with  the  waving  of  the 
Dorje  in  the  handle. 

The  bell  here  represented  was  brought  by  me  from 
Darjiling. 


The  bells  used  in  Burma  are  described  at  p.  526. 

Other  religious  implements  used  by  novices  and  lay- 
brethren,  as  well  as  by  full  monks,  are  prayer-wheels, 
prayer-cylinders,  rosaries,  amulets  (see  p.  358),  drums 
(see  p.  385),  and  the  Phurbu  or  Phur-pa  (pp.  351,  352). 

As  to  the  daily  religious  services  and  ceremonies  per- 
formed by  Monks  in  Tibet  and  Mongolia,  these,  of 
course,  are  far  more  ritualistic  than  in  southern  Bud- 
dhist countries.  It  has  already  been  explained  (at 
pp.  202,  225)  that  certain  abstract  essences  or  mystical 


TIBETAN    LANGUAGE    USED    IN    THE    RITUAL.        325 

forms  of  the  Buddha,  called  Dhyani-Buddhas,  were  ioia- 
gined  to  exist,  and  these  had  their  concrete  energizing 
vice-gerents  called  Bodhi-sattvas — beings  who  received 
adoration  as  if  they  were  actually  gods.  In  Tibet  the 
Bodhi-sattva  Avalokitesvara,  and  the  canonized  re- 
former Tsong  Khapa,  and  other  supposed  saints,  became 
prominent  objects  of  religious  worship.  Then,  in  pro- 
cess of  time,  a  comphcated  ceremonial  was  developed, 
which,  as  we  shall  see  (p.  338),  has  much  in  common 
with  the  ritual  of  Roman  Catholic  Christianity. 

The  language  employed  in  the  religious  services  of 
the  Lamistic  Hierarchy,  whether  in  Tibet,  Mongolia,  or 
in  the  Lama  monasteries  of  China  and  Manchuria,  is 
Tibetan.  In  fact,  Tibetan  is  to  the  Lamistic  Church 
what  Latin  is  to  the  Romish.  It  is  the  sole  orthodox 
language  of  religion  and  religious  ceremonial. 

According  to  Koeppen,  only  one  Mongolian  Lama- 
monastery  {and  that  established  at  Peking)  has  the 
right  to  perform  religious  services  in  Mongolian  in- 
stead of  in  Tibetan  \ 

Dr.  Edkins,  however,  states  that  there  is  a  temple 
(called  Fa-hai-si)  near  the  hunting-park,  in  which  the 
Manchu  language  is  employed  instead  of  Tibetan. 
(Chinese  Buddhism,  p.  406.) 

Without  doubt  the  acquisition  of  some  knowledge  of 
the    Tibetan  language  is  incumbent   on  every   Lama. 

^  This  is  probably  permitted  with  a  view  to  prevent  the  study  of 
Mongolian  from  entirely  dying  out.  It  is  cei-tain  that,  although 
the  Buddhist  sacred  books  have  long  been  translated  into  Mongolian, 
Chinese,  and  Tuugusic,  only  the  Tibetan  texts  are  esteemed  as 
canonical. 


326        CEREMONIAL   AND   RITUALISTIC    BUDDHISM. 

Nevertheless,  few,  except  in  Tibet,  really  understand  it. 
Thev  simply  repeat  the  usual  prayers  and  formularies 
mechanically  \ 

^  The  indomitable  persevering  Hungai-ian  traveller,  Alexander 
Csoma  de  Koros,  ali'eady  mentioned  (at  p.  70),  was  the  first  European 
to  throw  light  on  the  Tibetan  language.  He  had  been  impelled  to 
acquire  it  by  the  task  he  had  imposed  on  himself  of  seai'ching  out  the 
progenitors  of  his  race.  More  than  eighty  years  ago  he  set  out  on  his 
travels,  and  his  search  ultimately  brought  him  to  Tibet.  There  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Tibetan  language  and  its  saered 
literature,  taking  up  his  abode  in  the  monastery  of  Pugdal,  in  defiance 
of  intense  cold  and  other  hardships.  But  his  heroic  energy  did  not  end 
there.  In  1831  he  travelled  from  Tibet  to  Calcutta,  and  in  that  city, 
about  the  year  1834,  published  his  Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  the 
Tibetan  language,  besides  his  table  of  contents  of  the  Kanjur  and  the 
extra-canonical  treatises.  At  length  fancying  himself  qualified  for  the 
accomplishment  of  his  self-inflicted  task,  he  started  off  again,  and  died 
in  Sikkim  in  April  1842.  He  is  buried  at  DarjTling.  We  English- 
men, who  ought  to  have  taken  the  greatest  share  in  these  linguistic 
conquests — so  important  in  their  bearing  on  the  interests  of  our 
Indian  frontier — have  hitherto,  to  our  great  discredit,  almost  entirely 
neglected  them.  JNIeanwhile,  St.  Petersburg  and  Paris  have  founded 
chairs  of  the  Tibetan  language,  and  nearly  all  that  has  been  effected 
for  promoting  the  study  of  Tibetan  has  been  due  to  Eussian  and 
French  scholars,  and  to  German  and  Moravian  missionaries,  esjiecially 
to  Jaschke  and  Hyde. 

I  am  glad,  however,  to  see  from  the  annual  address  delivered  by 
the  President  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  and  published  in  the 
Keport  for  February,  1888,  that  this  reproach  is  now  being  wiped  out 
by  our  fellow-subjects  in  India.  Babu  Pratapa  Chandi-a  Ghosha  is 
bringing  out  in  the  Bibliotheca  ludica  the  Tibetan  translation  of  the 
Buddhistic  work  Prajua-paramita,  forming  the  second  division  of  the 
Kanjur,  while  j\Ir.  Sarat  Chandra  Das,  C.I.E.,  is  editing  the  Tibetan 
version  of  the  Avadana-Kalpalata  (a  store-house  of  legends  of  Buddha's 
life  and  acts),  and  compiling  a  Tibetau-Sanskrit-English  Dictionaiy. 
Great  credit  is  due  to  our  Indian  Government  for  the  publication  of 
Jiischke's  Tibetan-English  Dictionary. 


FORM  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  LAMISTIC  RITUAL.     327 

It  appears  that  the  Lamistic  priests  assemble  three 
times  a  day  to  go  through  the  prescribed  ritual — at 
sunrise,  at  mid-day,  and  at  sunset.  We  read  that, 
before  commencing  the  service,  they  enter  the  temple 
or  hall  of  worship  in  procession  and  seat  themselves  on 
low  seats  in  long  rows.  These  are  placed  the  whole 
length  of  the  hall,  from  the  entrance-door  to  the  altar, 
being  divided  in  the  middle  by  a  passage.  At  the 
further  extremity,  close  to  the  altar,  are  two  raised 
thrones  for  the  Head  Lamas — a  five-cushioned  one  on 
the  right  for  the  Abbot  and  a  three-cushioned  one  for 
the  Vice-Abbot. 

When  all  have  seated  themselves,  the  choir-master  or 
precentor  gives  a  signal  with  a  bell.  Then  the  prayer- 
formularies  are  recited  or  chanted,  certain  passages  out 
of  the  Law  are  intoned  and  certain  litanies  sung, 
sometimes  in  loud  tones,  accompanied  by  noisy  music 
or  by  clapping  of  hands,  and  generally  in  unison, 
though  occasionally  verses  are  sung  alternately  with 
responses. 

Then  at  other  times  a  sentence  of  the  Law  is 
repeated  by  each  monk  in  turn ;  or  a  chant  is  set  up 
consisting  of  such  words  as  :  Praise  be  to  the  Buddha  ! 
or  praise  be  to  some  Bodhi-sattva  !  followed  by  a  recital 
of  all  his  names,  titles,  and  epithets ;  or  mystical 
sentences  and  syllables  are  ejaculated.  The  result  is 
said  to  be  a  chaos  of  voices  and  a  deafening  confusion 
of  sounds. 

The  chief  instruments  used  in  the  services  are  a 
spiral  shell,  a  long  trumpet  of  copper  or  brass 
(sometimes  more  than  ten  feet  long),   a  large   drum, 


2,28        CEREMONIAL   AND    RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

flutes,  cymbals,  and  horns — the  last  being  sometimes 
made  of  the  thigh-bones  of  human  beings  \ 

The  ritual  is  imposing,  and  still  more  so  when  a 
living  Buddha  is  present.  It  has  been  described  by 
M.  Hue,  and  I  here  give  the  substance  of  his  account  ^. 

In  front  of  the  chief  idol,  and  on  a  level  with  the  altar,  is  a  gilded 
seat  for  the  living  Buddha  or  Grand  Lama  of  the  Monastery,  The 
whole  space  of  the  temple,  from  one  end  to  the  other,  is  occupied  by 
long  low  seats  almost  level  with  the  ground,  stretching  right  and 
left  of  the  Grand  Lama's  throne.  These  are  covered  with  carpets, 
a  vacant  space  being  left  between  each  row  for  the  Lamas  to  pass  and 
repass.  "When  the  hour  of  prayer  is  come,  a  Lama,  whose  office  it  is 
to  summon  the  choir,  places  himself  in  front  of  the  grand  entrance 
of  the  temple  and  blows  with  all  the  force  of  his  lungs  into  a  conch- 
shell  trumpet,  the  sound  of  which  is  audible  for  a  league  round.  This 
effectually  rouses  the  Lamas  and  calls  them  together.  Each  then  takes 
his  mantle  and  official  hat  of  ceremony,  and  repairs  to  the  interior 
court.  The  trumpet  sounds  again,  and  when  its  note  is  heard  for  the 
third  time,  the  great  door  is  suddenly  thrown  open  ;  the  living  Buddha 
enters,  and  takes  his  seat  in  front  of  the  image  on  the  altar.  Then  the 
Lamas,  after  depositing  their  red  boots  in  the  vestibule,  advance 
towards  him  barefoot,  and  adore  him  by  three  prostrations.  This  done, 
they  seat  themselves  on  the  long  seats  according  to  their  dignity, 
cross-legged  and  face  to  face.  As  soon  as  the  director  of  the  cere- 
monies has  given  the  signal  by  tinkling  a  little  bell,  everyone  murmurs 
the  prescribed  prayers,  unrolling  the  formularies  on  his  knees.  After 
this  recitation,  there  is  profound  silence  for  a  minute.  Then  the 
bell  is  again  rung,  and  a  hymn  or  chant  in  two  choruses  begins.  The 
Tibetan  prayers,  ordinarily  arranged  in  verses,  and  written  in 
metrical  style,  are  well  adapted  to  harmony ;  but  sometimes  at  certain 
pauses  indicated  by  the  rubric,  the  Lama  musicians  execute  a  strain 

'  As  corpses  are  exposed  to  be  devoured  by  animals  in  Tibet  human 
bones  are  easily  obtained  for  this  purpose. 

^  As  before  stated  (p.  306,  note)  I  have  been  compelled  to 
abbreviate  the  translator's  version  and  occasionally  to  vary  the 
expressions,  and  have  therefore  felt  it  right  to  omit  inverted  commas. 


HOLY  WATER,  CONSECEATED  GRAIN,  TEA-DEINKING.  329 

in  little  accord  with  the  gravity  of  the  psalmody.  The  result  is  a 
stunning  noise  of  bells,  cymbals,  drums,  tambourines,  conch-shells, 
trumpets,  and  pipes.  Each  musician  sounds  his  instrument  with  a 
sort  of  fury,  and  each  strives  to  outdo  his  neighbour  in  the  noise  he 
can  produce.     (Hue's  Travels,  i.  88,  abridged.) 

One  important  element  in  some  Tibetan  religious 
services  is  the  consecration  and  distribution  of  holy 
water  and  grain  by  the  chief  Lamas. 

Perfumes,  too,  are  burnt,  and  censers  containing 
incense  are  swung  backwards  and  forwards  during  the 
ceremonies. 

Then,  again,  some  Lamistic  ceremonials  include  the 
drinking  of  tea  poured  into  little  cups,  kept  in  the 
breast-pockets  of  the  monks'  robes,  and  replenished  two 
or  three  times  during  the  service. 

Sir  Eichard  Temple  (Journal,  ii.  208)  thus  describes 
a  tea- drinking  ceremonial  at  which  he  was  present,  at 
the  monastery  of  Pemyangchi  in  Sikkim  (see  p.  298  of 
these  Lectures). 

The  priests  and  monks,  some  thirty-five  in  all,  were  drawn  up  in 
full  robes  to  receive  us.  Then  the  officials  of  the  monastery  were 
introduced  —  the  steward,  the  rod-bearer,  the  dej^uty  master,  and 
lastly,  the  master.  A  procession  was  quickly  formed,  which  we 
followed  into  the  chapel,  where  they  all  took  their  accustomed  seats, 
while  we  sat  on  places  prepared  for  us.  The  interior  of  the  chapel 
seemed  an  odd  place  for  this,  but  we  were  told  that  it  was  the  correct 
ceremonial.  A  chant  was  begun,  which  lasted  some  ten  minutes,  as 
a  sort  of  grace,  and  then  tea  was  handed  round — first  to  us,  next  to 
the  priests,  and  lastly  to  tlie  monks.  A  short  chant  followed,  and 
then  the  procession  preceded  us  out  of  the  chapel. 

In  the  picture  which  accompanies  Sir  Eichard's 
description,  all  the  monks  have  head-coverings,  some 
of  which  are  like  caps   or  hats  of  a  high  sugar-loaf 


330        CEEEMONIAL    AND    RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

shape,  while  others  have  several  points  like  episcopal 
mitres  (see  p.  321). 

The  monks  of  Sikkim  are  generally  of  the  Dugpa 
sect  \  and  wear  red  caps  (see  pp.  273,  298). 

When  Dr.  Watt  was  in  Ladak,  he  was  present  at  a 
service  performed  by  a  number  of  monks  belonging  to 
both  sects,  who  seemed  to  fraternize  very  amicably.  All 
the  monks  of  the  red  sect  took  up  a  position  on  one 
side  of  the  chapel,  while  those  of  the  yellow  sect 
ranged  themselves  on  the  opposite  side.  The  two 
sects  entered  together,  as  usual,  in  procession,  and  part 
of  the  ceremonial — as  in  that  witnessed  by  Sir  Kichard 
Temple — consisted  in  drinking  tea  from  little  cups 
taken  from  the  folds  of  their  robes,  and  put  back  again, 
to  be  again  taken  out  and  replenished  ;  and  this,  too, 
without  interrupting  the  continuous  repetition  of 
prayers,  chants,  and  formularies  ^. 

M,  Hue  also  describes  a  '  Tea-general '  ceremony  after 
morning  service  in  a  temple.  Each  monk  drinks  in 
silence,  carefully  placing  his  scarf  before  his  cup,  as 
if  to  prevent  the  sight  of  the  apparent  incongruity  of 
drinking  tea  in  such  a  sacred  spot  (ii.  57), 

Another  instance  of  tea-drinking  as  an  element  in 
Lamistic  ceremonial,  occurs  in  Mr.  Sarat  Chandra 
Dfis'  highly  interesting  account  of  the  ceremony  of 
his  presentation  to  the  Dalai  Lama  at  the  palace- 
monastery  of  Potala,  in  Lhilssa,  on  June  10,  1882.     I 

^  According  to  Schlagintweit  this  sect  (also  called  Brugpa,  p.  272)  are 
especially  worshippers  of  the  Dorje  (see  p.  322),  and  are  therefore  Tau- 
trikas. 

^  This  I  heard  from  his  own  lips. 


CEREMONY    AT    INTERVIEW    WITH    DALAI    LAMA.      33 1 

venture  to  give  the  substance  of  it  in  an  abbreviated 
form  and  not  quite  literally  ^ 

An  account  of  other  presentations  both  to  the  Dalai 
Lama  and  Tashi  Lama  will  be  given  in  a  future 
Lecture  (see  pp.  439,  444,  447). 

Early  in  the  morning  I  was  informed  of  the  arrival  of  Chola  Kusho, 
who  was  ready  to  take  me  to  Potala  for  presentation  to  the  Dalai 
Lama.  We  sallied  forth  on  horseback,  with  three  bundles  of  incense- 
sticks  in  our  hands,  and  a  roll  of  scarves  in  our  breast-pockets,  chant- 
ing as  we  went  along  certain  hymns,  and  particularly  the  mystic 
'  Om  mani  padme  Hum.'  In  the  street  we  saw  a  calf  sucking  milk, 
and  several  women  fetching  water  in  our  direction.  My  companions 
were  delighted  at  theee  auspicious  omens.  Arrived  at  the  eastern 
gateway  of  Potala,  we  dismounted,  and  walked  up  a  long  hall,  on  two 
sides  of  which  were  two  rows  of  prayer-wheels,  put  there  to  be 
twirled,  on  going  in  and  coming  out. 

A  young  monk  now  came  down  to  conduct  us,  and  we  ascended 
slowly,  looking  only  on  the  ground  before  us.  The  several  ladders 
which  conducted  us  from  one  story  to  another  were  steep,  and  placed 
in  dark  halls.  I  counted  five,  which  took  us  as  far  as  the  ground- 
floor  of  the  Red  palace.  Half-a-dozen  ladders  still  remained  to  be  scaled. 

At  about  eight  we  reached  the  top,  and  there  found  a  number  of 
monks  anxiously  awaiting  an  interview  with  his  Holiness.  A  seat 
was  pointed  out  to  me.  A  monk  sat  near  me,  and  smilingly  observed 
that  it  must  have  been  on  account  of  the  sins  of  my  former  life  that 
I  was  born  in  India,  where  there  is  no  living  Buddha. 

From  the  top  of  the  Eed  palace  we  enjoyed  a  grand  panorama  of 
Lhassa  and  its  suburbs.  Shortly  afterwards  some  Lamas  of  high 
rank,  dressed  in  loose  yellow  mantles,  arrived.  They  entered  the  hall 
of  reception  one  after  another  in  solemn  array.  We  remained  outside 
in  anxious  suspense,  fixing  our  eyes  on  the  entrance  door,  and  expect- 
ing to  be  summoned  to  his  Holiness'  presence. 

At  last,  three  Lamas  came  towards  us  and  asked  us  to  enter  in  a 


^  The  abstract  has  been  made  by  me  from  a  copy  of  Sarat  Chandra 
Das'  Pveport  kindly  lent  to  me  by  Sir  Edwin  Arnold.  But  I  learnt 
much  from  Mr.  S,  C.  D.  in  personal  conversations.  In  my  numerous 
quotations  I  have  ventured  to  make  a  few  alterations  in  the  English. 


JO-^ 


CEREMONIAL   AND    RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 


line  one  after  another.  Walking  very  gently,  we  proceeded  to  the 
middle  of  the  audience  hall — a  spacious  apartment  supported  by  three 
rows  of  four  wooden  pillars.  The  walls  had  paintings  of  the  exploits 
of  Buddha,  of  Chanrassig  ^,  Tsong  Khapa,  and  other  celebrated  saints, 
besides  images  of  the  successive  incarnations  of  the  Dalai  Lama. 

As  soon  as  we  had  entered  the  official  scarf-collectors  received  the 
presentation-scarves  from  our  hands.  We  seated  ourselves  on  rugs, 
spread  in  about  eight  rows,  my  seat  being  in  the  third  row,  at  a 
distance  of  about  ten  feet  from  the  Grand  Lama's  throne,  and  a  little 
to  his  left.  When  all  were  seated,  perfect  silence  reigned  in  the 
grand  halj.  The  state  officials  walked  from  left  to  right  with  serene 
gravity,  as  became  their  exalted  rank,  in  the  presence  of  the  Supreme 
Vice-Piegent  of  Buddha  on  earth.  At  their  head  walked  the  Kuchar 
Khanpo,  who  carried  in  his  hand  the  bowl  of  benediction,  containing 
the  sacred  Thui  (that  is,  consecrated  water  stained  yellow  with  saffron) 
for  sprinkling  over  the  audience.  The  bearer  of  the  incense-pot,  sus- 
pended by  three  golden  chains,  the  carrier  of  the  royal  golden  tea-pot, 
and  other  domestic  officials,  now  came  up,  and  stood  motionless  as 
pictures,  without  looking  on  either  side,  but  fixing  their  eyes  and  their 
attention,  as  it  were,  on  the  tips  of  their  respective  noses.  Two  large 
golden  lamp-burners,  resembling  flower-vases,  flickei-ed  on  two  sides 
of  the  throne.  The  great  altar — resembling  an  oriental  throne,  and 
supported  by  lions  ^  carved  in  wood — on  which  sat  his  Holiness,  a 
child  of  eight,  was  covered  with  silk  scarves  of  great  value.  It  was 
about  four  feet  high,  six  long,  and  four  broad.  A  yellow  mitre-hat  ^ 
covered  the  Grand  Lama's  head,  the  pendant  portions  veiling  his  eai's, 
and  a  yellow  mantle  enveloped  his  person.  He  sat  cross-legged,  with 
the  palms  of  his  hands  joined  together  to  bless  us.  When  it  came  to 
my  turn  I  received  his  Holiness'  benediction,  and  was  able  to  look 
upon  his  divine  face.  Other  Lamas  approached  him  with  downcast 
looks,  and  resumed  their  respective  seats,  not  presuming  to  look  up. 
I  longed  to  linger  a  few  seconds,  but  other  candidates  for  benediction 
displaced   me   by  pushing  me  gently  forward.      I  noticed  that  the 

^  This  is  the  Tibetan  name  of  Avalokitesvara  or  Padma-pani.  It 
is  often  spelt  Chenresi,  or  Chenresig,  or  Chenressig. 

^  The  Lion  is  an  emblem  of  the  Buddha,  and  he  is  called  Sakya- 
sinlia,  '  the  Lion  of  the  Sakya  tribe '  (see  pp.  23,  394).^ 

^  See  p.  321. 


CEREMONY    AT    INTERVIEW   WITH    DALAI    LAMA.      333 

princely  child  possessed  a  really  bright  and  fair  complexion,  with  rosy 
cheeks.  His  eyes  were  large  and  penetrating.  The  contour  of  his 
face  was  remarkably  Aryan,  though  somewhat  marred  by  the  obliquity 
of  his  eyes.  The  thinness  of  his  person  was  probably  owing  to  the 
fatigues  of  the  court-ceremonies,  religious  duties,  and  ascetic  observ- 
ances, to  which  he  had  been  subjected  since  taking  the  vows  of  monk- 
hood. Remembering  the  stories  about  the  freaks  of  fortune,  which 
had  lately  brought  him  to  this  proud  position,  and  had  compelled 
his  predecessors  to  undergo  untimely  transmigrations,  I  pitied  his 
exalted  rank  :  for  who  knows  whether  he  will  not  be  forced  to  undergo 
another  transmigration  before  reaching  his  twentieth  year  1 

When  all  were  again  seated  after  receiving  the  Dalai  Lama's  bene- 
diction, the  Sol-pon  Chhenpo  poured  tea  in  his  Holiness'  golden  cup 
from  a  golden  tea-pot,  while  four  assistant  Sol-pons  poured  tea  in  the 
cuj^s  of  the  audience,  consisting  of  the  head  Lamas  of  Meru  monastery 
and  ourselves.  Before  the  Grand  Lama  lifted  his  cup  to  his  lips,  a 
grace  was  solemnly  said,  beginning  with  '  Om  ah  Hum '  thrice  chanted, 
and  followed  by  a  prayer  to  the  following  effect : — '  Never  even  for  a 
moment  losing  sight  of  the  three  Holies,  always  offer  reverence  to  the 
Tri-ratnas ;  let  the  blessings  of  the  three  be  upon  us.'  Without  even 
stirring  the  air  by  the  movements  of  our  limbs,  we  slowly  lifted  our 
cups  to  our  lips,  and  drank  the  tea — which  was  delicious — taking  care 
to  make  no  sound  with  our  lips.  Three  times  was  tea  served,  and 
three  times  we  emptied  our  cups,  after  which  we  put  them  back  in 
our  breast-pockets.  Then  the  Sol-pon  placed  a  golden  dish  full  of 
consecrated  rice  in  front  of  his  Holiness,  which  he  only  touched.  Tlie 
remainder  was  distributed  among  those  present.  I  obtained  a  hand- 
ful, which  I  carefully  tied  in  one  corner  of  my  handkerchief.  The 
following  grace  was  then  uttered  by  the  assembled  monks,  with  much 
gravity  : — '  The  most  precious  Buddha  is  the  most  perfect  and  matchless 
teacher  ;  the  most  unerring  guide  is  the  Sangha ;  the  most  infallible 
protection  is  in  the  sacred  Bharma.  We  offer  these  offerings  to  these 
three  objects  of  refuge.     Reverence  be  to  each  of  them  ! ' 

Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das  also  witnessed  at  the  same 
time  the  performance  of  a  remarkable  ceremony  for  the 
translation  of  the  soul  of  a  chief  Lama  or  Khanpo  to 
one  of  the  heavenly  mansions. 


334        CEREMONIAL    AND   RITUALISTIC   BUDDHISM. 

It  appears  that  a  certain  well-known  Khanpo  had 
died  of  small-pox.  He  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
scholars  of  Tibet,  and  held  the  highest  position  in  the 
Court  of  Potala.  The  day  on  which  the  ceremony  was 
performed  was  the  twenty-seventh  day  of  this  chief 
Lama's  Bardo  (p.  371)  ;  that  is,  of  the  interval  of  forty- 
nine  days  between  his  death  and  his  translation  to 
another  world.  (According  to  Jitschke  the  interval  of 
the  intermediate  state  only  lasts  for  forty  days.) 

The  Dalai  Lama,  seated  on  his  throne,  chanted  a 
hymn  in  a  low  indistinct  voice.  Afterwards  the  as- 
sembled monks  in  grave  tones  repeated  what  the  Grand 
Lama  had  uttered.  Then  a  venerable  personage  rose 
from  the  middle  of  the  first  row  of  seats,  and  addressing 
the  Grand  Lama  as  the  incarnate  Lord  Chenressif»; 
(Avalokitesvara),  recited  all  the  many  acts  of  mercy 
performed  by  him,  as  the  patron-saint  of  Tibet,  for  the 
benefit  of  its  people.  Next,  he  made  offerings  of  certain 
precious  things  (including  an  imaginary  presentation  of 
the  seven  mythical  treasures  ^)  for  the  benefit  of  the 
soul  of  the  late  Khanpo,  saying : — '  I  pray  that  you 
may  graciously  accept  these  presents  for  the  good  of 
all  living  beings.' 

Finally,  he  prostrated  himself  three  times  before  the 
Grand  Lama's  throne.  A  solemn  pause  followed  ;  after 
which  the  audience  rose,  and  the  Grand  Lama  retired. 
Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das  goes  on  to  relate  that  at  the  end 
of  the  ceremony  one  of  the  assistant  Lamas  gave  him 
two  packets  of  pills,  and  another  tied  a  scrap  of  red 

^  See  these  enumerated  at  p.  528. 


OTHER    CEEEMONIES.  335 

silk  round  his  neck.  The  pills,  he  was  told,  were 
chinlab  or  blessings,  consecrated  by  the  Buddha  and 
other  saints ;  and  the  consecrated  scrap  of  silk,  called 
sungdu,  '  knot  of  blessing,'  was  the  Grand  Lama's  usual 
return  for  presents  made  to  him  by  pilgrims  and  devotees. 
We  may  note  here  that  in  1866  the  Indian  explorer 
Nain  Singh  saw  the  then  Dalai  Lama.  He  was  a 
handsome  boy  about  thirteen  years  old,  and  was  seated 
on  a  throne  six  feet  high.  He  had  the  Eegent  on  his 
right  hand.  He  was  said  to  be  in  his  thirteenth  trans- 
migration ^ 

Dr.  Schlagintweit  (p.  239)  describes  a  ceremony  in 
which  consecrated  water  (thui)  is  poured  from  a  teapot- 
like vessel  over  a  metallic  mirror  (pp.  458,  463  of  these 
Lectures),  which  is  held  so  as  to  reflect  the  image  of 
Gautama  Buddha  seated  on  the  altar.  This  water  falls 
down  into  a  flat  vessel  containing  a  bag  filled  with 
rice,  and  is  then  suitable  for  ceremonial  ablutions. 

Another  ceremony  (called  Nyungne  ?  by  Schlagint- 
weit), involving  long  abstinence,  lasts  for  four  days. 

The  first  and  second  days  are  passed  in  preparations. 
Those  who  are  to  take  part  in  the  ceremony  rise  at 
sunrise,  bathe  and  prostrate  themselves  several  times 
before  the  image  of  Avalokitesvara.  The  head  Lama 
then  bids  them  confess  their  faults,  and  meditate 
on  the  evils  resulting  from  demerit.  He  next,  with  his 
attendants,  recites  extracts  from  certain  books  of  con- 
fession. This  goes  on  till  ten  o'clock,  when  tea  is 
taken.     After  this  the  recitations  and  prayer-recitals 

^  See  Mr.  Clements  Markliam's  Tibet,  p.  cxiii. 


2,2,^        CEEEMONIAL    AND    RITUALISTIC    BUDDHISM. 

continue  till  two  o'clock,  when  a  meal  of  vegetables  is 
eaten.  Then  comes  a  pause,  but  the  prayers  and 
readings  are  afterwards  carried  on  till  late  at  night,  tea 
being  handed  round  at  intervals.  Before  retiring  to 
rest,  the  head  Lama  specifies  the  various  duties  to  be 
performed  by  the  devotees  on  the  following  day,  and 
orders  them,  as  a  penance,  to  sleep  in  '  the  lion-posture,' 
viz.  to  lie  on  the  right  side,  to  stretch  out  the  feet  and 
to  support  the  head  with  the  right  hand  ^ 

The  third  day  is  the  most  important,  and  is  passed 
in  rigorous  abstinence  from  all  food.  No  one  is  even 
allowed  to  swallow  his  saliva,  which  must  be  ejected 
into  a  vessel  placed  before  him.  Not  a  word  must  be 
spoken.  Each  man  prays  and  confesses  his  sins,  but 
does  so  in  absolute  silence.  This  continues  till  sun- 
rise on  the  fourth  day. 

It  was  at  first  the  rule  that  repetitions  of  the  Law, 
confessions  of  sin  (especially  the  Patimokkha),  and  some 
of  the  chief  religious  ceremonies  (including  fasting) 
should  take  place,  more  particularly  on  the  days  of  new 
and  full  moon  (called  Uposatha,  p.  84). 

Thus  we  read  that  '  on  the  day  of  full  moon  Ananda 
purified  himself,  and  went  up  to  the  upper  story  of  his 
house  to  keep  the  sacred  day '  (Mahasudassana-sutra, 
i-io).  This  was  in  conformity  with  the  ancient 
Brahmanical  rule  that  every  new-moon  day  (Darsa) 
and  every  full -moon  day  (Paurnamasa)  should  be  set 
apart  for  special  religious  observances  ^. 

^  This  was  the  Buddha's  attitude  when  he  died  (see  pp.  50,  241). 
He  is  called  '  a  Lion.'     (See  note  2,  p.  332.) 
^  See  my  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  367. 


UPOSATH A  AND  FAST-DAYS.      CIRCUMAMBULATION.    337 

In  later  times  the  intermediate  quarter-moon  days 
were  also  held  sacred,  and  so  the  number  of  Uposatha 
days  (see  p.  84)  was  increased  to  four  in  every  month, 
or  once  a  week.  Very  strict  Buddhists  in  Tibet  eat 
nothing  on  these  days  between  sunrise  and  sunset 
except  farinaceous  food  with  tea  (p.  346). 

The  laity  are  invited  to  join  in  keeping  the  Uposatha 
days,  but  take  no  real  part  in  the  detail  of  the  services. 
The  same  rule  applies  to  all  religious  ceremonies.  Lay- 
men may  be  present  at  any  rite,  but  without  co-operatiog 
in  carrying  out  the  ritual.  Still,  laymen  have  their 
own  part  to  perform.  They  look  on — listen,  tell  their 
rosaries,  and  repeat  short  prayers — such  as  the  '  three- 
refuge  '  and  'jewel-lotus'  formula  (pp.  78,  370) — and 
make  declarations  to  avoid  the  five  great  sins  (p.  126). 
Or  they  walk  up  to  the  image-altar  and  place  offerings 
on  it,  or  bow  before  it  and  receive  the  Lama's  benediction. 
Theoretically,  the  laity  only  exist  to  honour  and  support 
the  monkhood,  and  to  be  blessed  by  them  in  return. 
At  all  events  a  layman's  religion  is  usually  restricted 
to  a  very  limited  range  of  duty. 

One  common  way  of  showing  piety  is  by  walking 
round  temples,  monasteries,  Stupas,  and  sacred  walls 
(see  pp.  380,  505),  from  east  to  west,  keeping  the  right 
shoulder  towards  them,  and  even  occasionally  measuring 
the  ground  with  the  extended  body. 

This  last  task  is  by  no  means  a  light  or  easy  one. 
According  to  M.  Hue  (i.  202),  a  whole  day  scarcely 
suffices  to  perform  the  circumambulation  when  the 
monastic  buildings  and  temples  occupy  an  extensive 
area.     People   begin   at  daybreak,  and.  the   feat  must 

z 


2,^3        CEREMONIAL    AND    EITUALISTIC    BUDDHISM. 

be  accomplished  all  at  one  time,  without  any  break, 
or  even  a  few  moments'  pause  for  taking  nourish- 
ment. Moreover,  the  measuring-process  must  be  perfect ; 
'  the  body  must  be  extended,  to  its  whole  length,  and 
the  forehead  must  touch  the  earth  while  the  arms  are 
stretched  out  in  front  and  the  hands  joined.'  At  each 
prostration  a  circle  must  be  drawn  on  the  ground  with 
two  rams'  horns  held  in  the  hands.  '  It  is  a  sorrowful 
spectacle,  and  the  unfortunate  people  often  have  their 
faces  and  clothes  covered  with  dust  and  mud.  The 
utmost  severity  of  the  weather  does  not  present  any 
obstacle  to  their  courageous  devotion.  They  continue 
their  prostrations  through  rain,  snow,  and  cold.  Some- 
times they  go  through  the  additional  penance  of  carry- 
ing an  enormous  weiglit  of  books  on  their  backs.  You 
meet  with  men,  women,  and  even  children  sinking 
under  these  excessive  burdens.  When  they  have 
finished  their  circum ambulation,  they  are  considered  to 
have  acquired  the  same  merit  as  if  they  had  recited  all 
the  prayers  contained  in  the  books  they  have  carried.' 
In  point  of  fact  they  are  generally  far  too  ignorant  to 
be  able  to  read  the  books,  and  the  carrying  of  them  on 
their  backs  is  taken  as  an  adequate  equivalent. 

The  acquisition  of  merit  by  circumambulation  is  not 
an  exclusively  Hindu  or  Buddhist  idea.  The  Holy 
House  at  Loretto  near  Ancona — believed  to  have  been 
transported  there  from  Bethlehem  by  angels — is  circum- 
ambulated by  pilgrims  on  their  knees,  but  keeping  the 
sacred  object  to  the  left.  Indeed,  we  may  fitly  conclude 
the  present  Lecture  by  a  comparison  between  the  ritual 
of  Tibetan  Buddhism  and  that  of  Roman  Catholicism — 


a  comparison,  too,  drawn  by  the  Koman  Catholic  Mis- 
sionaries themselves : 

*  The  cross,  the  mitre,  the  dalmatica,  the  cope,  which 
Grand  Lamas  wear  on  their  journeys,  or  when  they  are 
performing  some  ceremony  out  of  the  temple ;  the 
service  with  double  choirs,  the  psalmody,  the  exorcisms, 
the  censer  for  incense,  suspended  from  five  chains,  and 
opened  or  closed  at  pleasure ;  the  benedictions  pro- 
nounced by  the  Lamas  by  extending  the  right  hand 
over  the  heads  of  the  faithful ;  the  chaplet,  eccle- 
siastical celibacy,  spiritual  retirement,  the  worship  of 
the  saints,  the  fasts,  the  processions,  the  litanies,  the 
holy  water,  all  these  are  analogies  between  the  Bud- 
dhists and  ourselves '  (Hue,  ii.  50).  To  these  may  be 
added  sacred  images,  sacred  pictures,  sacred  symbols, 
relics,  lamps,  and  illuminations  ^ 

This  is  doubtless  a  true  comparison.  But  it  does  not 
follow  that  the  opinion  which  the  missionaries  express — 
'  that  these  analogies  are  of  Christian  origin ' — is  equally 
deservina:  of  our  assent.  No  doubt  one  chief  feature  of 
Buddhism,  as  of  Hinduism  -,  is  its  recejotivity,  but  may 
it  not  be  the  case  that  human  nature  and  human  ten- 
dencies will  be  found  to  assert  themselves  independently 
in  every  part  of  the  world,  wherever  surrounding  cir- 
cumstances are  favourable  to  their  development  ? 

^  I  found,  wlieu  iu  the  South  of  India,  that  an  image  of  Bhavani  in 
a  Hindu  temple  was  very  like  that  of  the  Virgin  Mary  in  an  adjacent 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  I  was  told  that  the  same  Hindu  carver 
carved  both. 

^  We  know  that  Hindiiism,  in  the  end,  adopted  Buddha  himself, 
and  converted  him  into  one  of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu  (see  '  Brah- 
manism  and  Hindiii&m,'  p.  114). 

Z   2 


LECTUEE   XIII. 

Festivals,  Domestic  Rites,  and  Formularies  of  Prayer. 

We  must  now  turn  to  tlie  consideration  of  some  of  the 
chief  festivals,  domestic  rites,  and  prayer-formularies  of 
Buddhism — a  subject  which  follows  as  a  natural  sequel 
to  the  last  Lecture. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Hindus  have  certain  festi- 
vals and  holy  days,  celebrated  at  the  junction  of  the 
seasons  which  in  India  are  properly  six  in  number — 
namely,  spring,  summer,  the  rains  (Yarsha),  autumn, 
winter,  and  the  season  of  dew  and  mist  (see  '  Indian 
Wisdom,'  p.  450  ;  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  428). 

Buddhism  has  adopted  the  old  Hindu  ideas  on  this 
subject,  and  has  added  others  of  its  own,  but  generally 
only  reckons  three  seasous — summer,  the  rains  (Vassa 
=  Varsha)  and  winter. 

The  festival  of  the  New  Year  is,  of  course,  universal. 
It  is  supposed  to  celebrate  the  victory  of  light  over 
darkness,  and,  in  Buddhist  countries,  of  Buddhism  over 
ignorance.  The  corresponding  Hindu  festival  is  called 
Makara-sankranti.  In  India  this  marks  the  termination 
of  the  inauspicious  month  Pausha  and  the  beginning  of 
the  sun's  northern  course  (uttarayana)  in  the  heavens. 
It  is  a  season  of  general  rejoicing. 


NEW    YEARS   FESTIVAL   IN    BURMA.  34 1 

In  Burma,  where  a  good  type  of  Southern  Buddhism 
is  still  to  be  found,  the  New  Year's  festival  might 
suitably  be  called  a  '  water-festival.'  It  has  there  so 
little  connexion  with  the  increase  of  the  New  Year's 
light,  that  it  often  takes  place  as  late  as  the  early  half 
of  April  (see  Mr.  Scott's  '  Burman,'  ii.  48).  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  movable  feast,  the  date  of  which  is  regularly 
fixed  by  the  astrologers  of  Mandalay,  '  who  make  in- 
tricate calculations  based  on  the  position  of  various 
constellations.'  The  object  is  to  determine  on  what 
precise  day  the  king  of  the  Naths  (see  p.  217  of  this 
volume)  will  descend  upon  the  earth  and  inaugurate 
the  new  year.  When  the  day  arrives  all  are  on  the 
watch,  and  just  at  the  right  moment — which  invariably 
occurs  at  midnight — a  cannon  is  fired  off,  announcing 
the  descent  of  the  Nath-king  upon  earth.  Forthwith 
(according  to  Mr.  Scott)  men  and  women  sally  out  of 
their  houses,  carrying  pots  full  of  water  consecrated  by 
fresh  leaves  and  twigs  of  a  sacred  tree  (p.  514  of  this 
volume),  repeat  a  formal  prayer,  and  pour  out  the  water 
on  the  ground.  At  the  same  time  all  who  have  guns 
of  any  kind  discharge  them,  so  as  to  greet  the  new  year 
with  as  much  noise  as  possible. 

Then,  '  with  the  first  glimmer  of  light,'  all  take  jars 
full  of  fresh  water  and  carry  them  off  to  the  nearest 
monastery.  First  they  present  them  to  the  monks, 
and  then  proceed  to  bathe  the  images.  This  work  is 
usually  done  by  the  women  of  the  party,  '  who  rever- 
ently clamber  up '  and  empty  their  goblets  of  water 
over  the  placid  features  of  the  Buddhas  and  Bodhi- 
sattvas.      Then  begin  the  Saturnalia.      All  along  the 


342  CEREMONIES    AT    FESTIVALS. 

road  are  urchins  with  squirts  and  syringes,  with  which 
they  have  been  furtively  practising  for  the  last  few- 
days.  The  skill  thus  acquired  is  exhibited  by  the 
accuracy  of  their  aim.  Cold  streams  of  water  catch  the 
ears  of  the  passers  by.  Young  men  and  girls  salute 
one  another  with  the  contents  of  jars  and  goblets. 
Shouts  of  merriment  are  heard  in  every  quarter.  Be- 
fore breakfast  every  one  is  soaked,  but  no  one  thinks 
of  changing  his  garments,  for  the  weather  is  warm,  and 
'  water  is  everywhere.'  The  girls  are  the  most  enthu- 
siastic, and  as  they  generally  go  in  bands  and  carry 
copious  reservoirs  along  with  them,  '  unprotected  males ' 
are  soon  routed.  Then  a  number  of  '  zealous  j)eople ' 
go  dow^n  to  the  river,  wade  into  the  water  knee-dee]^, 
splash  about  and  drench  one  another  till  they  are  tired. 
No  one  escapes.  For  three  days  no  one  Hkes  to  be 
seen  with  dry  clothes.  The  wetting  is  a  compliment. 
A  clerk  comes  up  to  his  master,  bows,  and  '  gravely 
pours  the  contents  of  a  silver  cup  down  the  back 
of  his  neck,'  saying,  '  let  me  do  homage  to  you  with 
water.' 

It  appears  from  Mr.  Scott's  amusing  narrative  that, 
when  there  was  a  king  in  Burma,  an  important  feature 
of  the  festival  was  the  formal  washing  of  his  Majesty's 
head. 

The  New  Year's  rejoicings  in  Ceylon  require  no 
special  notice. 

In  Tibet  the  New  Year's  festival  joroperly  begins  at 
new  moon,  and  may  be  delayed  till  some  time  in 
February.  The  festival  lasts  fifteen  days,  and,  as  usual, 
is  a  season  of  general  festivity,  gifts,  congratulations, 


NEW   YEAES   FESTIVAL   IN   TIBET.  34 


o^-j 


mummery,  dancing,   and   acting.     It  is    the  Lamistic 
carnival. 

According  to  M.  Hue  (ii.  216)  the  rejoicings  com- 
mence (as  in  Burma)  at  midnight.  At  Lhassa  all  the 
inhabitants  sit  up,  awaiting  the  solemn  moment  which 
is  to  close  the  old  year  and  open  the  new.  The  usages 
differ  so  curiously  from  those  customary  in  Southern 
Buddhist  countries,  that  I  here  give  an  abbreviated 
version  of  the  two  French  travellers'  experiences. 

Not  being  at  all  eager  to  watch  for  the  moment  of  separation 
between  the  two  Tibetan  years,  we  went  to  bed  at  our  usual  hour, 
and  were  wrapped  in  profound  slumber,  when  we  were  suddenly- 
awakened  by  cries  of  joy  issuing  from  all  quarters  of  the  town.  Bells, 
cymbals,  conchs,  tambourines,  and  all  the  instruments  of  Tibetan 
music,  were  set  to  work  together  and  produced  the  most  frightful 
ujjroar  imaginable.  We  had  a  good  mind  to  get  up  to  witness  the 
happiness  of  the  inhabitants  of  Lhassa,  but  the  cold  was  so  cutting 
that,  after  reflection,  we  decided  to  remain  under  our  woollen  cover- 
lets, and  to  unite  ourselves  in  heai't  only  with  the  public  felicity. 
Unhappily  for  our  comfort,  violent  knocks  on  our  door,  threatening 
to  smash  it  into  splinters,  warned  us  that  we  must  renounce  our 
project.  We  therefore  donned  our  clothes,  and  the  door  being  opened, 
some  friendly  Tibetans  rushed  into  our  room,  inviting  us  to  the  New 
Year's  banquet.  They  all  bore  in  their  hands  a  small  vessel  made  of 
baked  earth,  in  which  balls  of  honey  and  flour  floated  on  boiling 
water.  One  visitor  offered  us  a  long  silver  needle,  terminating  in  a 
hook,  and  invited  us  to  fish  in  his  basin.  At  first  we  sought  to 
excuse  ourselves,  objecting  that  we  were  not  in  the  habit  of  taking 
food  during  the  night,  but  they  entreated  us  so  warmly,  and  put  out 
their  tongues  at  us  with  so  friendly  a  grace,  that  we  were  obliged  to 
comply,  and  resign  ourselves  to  a  participation  in  the  New  Year's 
festivities.  Each  of  us,  therefore,  hooked  a  ball,  which  we  then 
crushed  between  our  teeth  to  ascertain  its  flavour.  For  politeness 
sake  we  had  to  swallow  the  dose,  but  not  without  making  some 
grimaces.  Nor  could  we  get  off  with  this  first  act  of  devotion.  The 
New  Year  was  inexorable.     Om*  numerous  friends  at  Lhassa  succeeded 


344  CEREMONIES    AT   FESTIVALS. 

each  other  ahiiost  witliout  interruption,  and  we  had  perforce  to  inunch 
Tibetan  sweetmeats  till  daybreak. 

It  is  said  that  other  peculiar  customs  follow,  one  of 
which  the  Tibetans  call  the  Lhassa-Moru.  This  takes 
place  on  the  third  day,  and  leads  to  the  invasion  of 
the  town  and  its  environs  by  innumerable  bands  of 
Lamas.  Immense  numbers  of  Lamas,  some  on  foot, 
some  on  horseback,  some  on  asses  or  oxen,  and  all 
carrying  cooking-utensils  and  prayer-books,  crowd  into 
Lhassa  from  all  points.  The  town  is  completely  over- 
run. Those  who  cannot  get  lodgings  encamp  in  the 
streets  and  squares,  or  pitch  their  tents  in  the  suburbs. 
The  tribunals  are  closed,  and  the  course  of  justice  is 
suspended.  The  Lamas  parade  the  streets  in  disorderly 
bands,  uttering  discordant  cries,  pushing  one  another 
about,  quarrelling,  fighting,  and  yet,  in  the  midst  of  all, 
chanting  their  prayers  (Hue,  ii.  218). 

In  Tibet  there  is  a  '  water-festival '  in  the  seventh 
or  eighth  month  (about  our  August  and  September). 
At  this  festival  the  Lamas  go  in  procession  to  rivers 
and  lakes,  and  consecrate  the  waters  by  benediction 
or  by  throwing  in  offerings.  Huts  and  tents  are  erected 
on  the  banks,  and  people  bathe  and  drink  to  wash  away 
their  sins.  It  concludes  with  dancing,  buffoonery,  and 
masquerading. 

The  festival  of  Gautama  Buddha's  conception,  or  of 
the  Buddha's  last  birth — for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that,  before  Buddhahood,  he  went  through  innumerable 
previous  births — is  a  most  important  anniversary  in 
all  Buddhist  countries,  but  the  right  date  has  been  the 
occasion  of  much  controversy.     The  event  is  generally 


FESTIVALS    OF   BUDDHa's   BIRTH   AND    DEATH,      345 

celebrated  at  the  end  of  April,  or  beginniDg  of  May, 
or  on  a  day  corresponding  to  the  15th  day  of  the 
Hindu  month  Vaisakha,  which  is  also  sometimes  given 
as  the  date  of  the  Buddha's  attainment  of  Buddhahood, 
and  of  his  death.  Everywhere  throughout  the  modern 
Buddhist  world  the  Buddha's  birthday  is  kept  by  the 
worship  of  his  images,  followed  by  processions. 

As  to  the  day  of  his  death,  Sarat  Chandra  Das  was 
at  Lhassa  on  June  i,  1882,  and  wrote  thus  : — '  To-dav 
being  the  holiest  day  of  the  year — the  anniversary  of 
Buddha's  Nirvana — the  burning  of  incense  in  every 
shrine,  chapel,  monastery,  and  house,  darkened  the 
atmosphere  with  smoke.  Men  hastened  to  the  great 
temple  to  do  homage  to  the  Buddha  and  to  obtain  his 
blessing.' 

The  '  festival  of  lamps '  is  an  important  anniversary 
with  all  Buddhists.  The  Hindus  have  their  Divali  or 
feast  of  illuminations  (see  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,' 
p.  432)  when  the  cold  season  begins.  The  early  Bud- 
dhists marked  the  end  of  the  rainy  season  (Vassa  = 
Varsha),  which  terminated  their  jDcriod  of  retirement,  by 
a  day  of  rejoicing  (see  p.  84).  In  process  of  time  they 
connected  the  celebration  of  Gautama's  descent  from 
heaven  (p.  417)  with  the  termination  of  Vassa. 

In  Tibet  the  orthodox  followers  of  the  Dalai  Lama 
have  a  festival  of  their  own,  with  illuminations,  on  the 
25th  day  of  the  loth  month  (Nov.-Dec),  to  celebrate 
the  ascension  of  Tsong  Khapa  to  heaven  (p.  280).  Sarat 
Chandra  Das  was  at  Tashi  Lunpo  on  this  day  in  1881, 
when  '  hundreds  of  lamp-burners  were  tastefully  j^laced 
in  rows  on  the  roof  of  every  building.'   The  illuminations 


346  CEEEMONIES    AT   FESTIVALS. 

of  the  temples,  tombs,  and  grand  monastery  '  presented 
a  magnificent  appearance.' 

With  regard  to  the  season  called  Vassa,  it  should  he 
noted  here  that  since  there  is  no  rainy  period  of  the 
year  in  Tibet  which  corresponds  to  the  Indian  *  Eains,' 
certain  seasons  of  abstinence  from  food  are  observed 
either  before,  or  at  the  same  time  with  the  great  Festivals. 
These  periods  of  fasting  are  distributed  equally  through- 
out the  year — one  in  February,  one  in  May,  one  in  July, 
one  in  November  or  December. 

The  festivals  and  holy  days  thus  briefly  described, 
are  by  no  means  the  only  festivals  of  Buddhism.  There 
are  numerous  other  special  and  local  ones.  For  example, 
in  Ceylon,  the  Sinhalese  celebrate  the  coming  of  the 
Buddha  to  their  island  and  his  victory  over  the  Eak- 
shasas  and  evil  demons  by  a  festival  in  March  or  April, 
when  the  greater  number  of  pilgrims  flock  to  his  sup- 
posed foot-print  on  Adam's  Peak,  or  to  the  sacred 
Bodhi-tree  at Anuradha-pura  (seep.  5  19).  Other  Southern 
countries  have  festivals  connected  with  the  worship  of 
special  foot-prints  and  relics  of  their  own. 

Then  the  Lamas  in  Lhassa  keep  the  day  of  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Dorje  (see  p.  322)  on  the  27th  day  of  the 
first  month,  while  those  m  Sikkim  celebrate  as  a  festival 
the  day  on  wdiich  the  Lepchas  make  offerings  to  the 
spirit  of  the  mountain  Kinchinjunga. 

Then,  again,  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  month  an 
exhibition  of  sacred  vessels  and  j)ictures  takes  place  at 
Lhassa,  accompanied  by  processions  in  masks,  the  Lamas 
appearing  as  good  genii,  and  the  laity  as  tigers,  leopards, 
elephants,  &c. 


RELIGIOUS    DANCES   AND   MASQUEEADES.  347 

In  other  places,  too,  there  are  special  festivals.  For 
example,  a  singular  festival,  called  '  Chase  of  the  spirit- 
kings,'  is  kept  by  Northern  Buddhists  on  the  30th  of  the 
second  month,  when  there  is  a  vast  amount  of  religious 
dancing  {with  tediously  slow  movements),  masquerading, 
mummery,  and  bufioonery,  not  unlike  the  devil-dancing 
which  goes  on  in  Ceylon,  and  closely  connected  with 
the  universal  belief  in  demons  and  evil  spirits. 

The  most  hideous  masks  are  used  on  these  occasions. 
In  1884  I  had  an  opportunity  of  inspecting  in  a  Bud- 
dhist monastery  near  Darjiling  a  most  singular  assort- 
ment of  religious  masks,  which  for  distortion  of  feature 
and  horrible  unsightliness,  could  scarcely  be  matched 
anvwhere ;  for  indeed  mask-makino;  is  an  art  which 
Buddhism  has  brought  to  the  greatest  perfection.  I  also 
witnessed  a  religious  dance  performed  by  a  j)arty  of 
masqueraders  which  struck  me  as  a  remarkable  example 
of  the  utter  debasement  of  Buddhism  in  Northern 
countries. 

Mrs.  Bridges  describes  a  similar  religious  dance  in 
Ladak  thus  : — 

'  A  group  of  grinning  masks — lions'  heads  and  harlequins'  bodies — 
came  down  the  steps,  and  whirling  slowly  round,  retreated  again  into 
the  gloom  and  came  out  dragon-headed.  Then  a  hand  of  skeletons, 
the  skulls  (masks)  admirably  painted,  gnashing  their  hideous  jaws 
and  shaking  tlieir  lanky  limbs,  rushed  out  into  the  sunshine  and 
executed  a  real  "  Dance  of  Death"  before  us.'     ('  Travels,'  p.  loi.) 

Yet  all  true  Buddhists  are  prohibited  from  dancing 
and  masquerading  (p.  126  of  this  volume);  just  as 
Manu  {II.  178,  IV.  15,  212)  prohibited  Brahmans  from 
engaging  in  similar  frivolities. 

Then  the  religious   dramas  performed  on   some   of 


348  RELIGIOUS   DRAMAS. 

the  Buddhist  festive  days  are  not  the  least  interesting 
examples  of  the  present  prevalent  superstitions. 

I  witnessed  part  of  a  dramatic  performance  at  a  Bur- 
mese Theatre  in  Calcutta  (during  the  Exhibition  year), 
when  the  story  of  the  Hindu  Epic,  called  Eamayana, 
and  especially  that  portion  of  it  which  relates  to  the 
carrying  off  of  Sita  by  demons  (see  '  Brahmanism  and 
Hinduism,'  p.  42,  and  '  Indian  Wisdom/  p.  SSj),  was  dra- 
matically represented.  The  theatre  was  a  rude  wooden 
enclosure  open  to  the  sky,  with  the  exception  of  a  por- 
tion roofed  over  for  a  band  of  musicians,  whose  noisy 
performances  appeared  to  constitute  an  important 
element  in  the  proceedings.  The  chief  musician  sat 
on  the  ground  in  the  middle  of  a  circular  frame- work — 
about  two  or  three  feet  liio-h — huno-  round  with  drums 
of  different  sizes,  which  he  struck  with  his  hands,  and 
occasionally  tuned  by  the  application  of  moist  clay  in 
larger  or  smaller  lumps.  In  the  centre  of  the  open 
area  of  flat  dusty  soil  which  served  for  the  stage,  a  big 
branch  of  a  tree  was  stuck  upright,  possibly  to  re- 
present the  forest  in  which  Rama  Hved  with  his  wife. 
Then  the  hero  and  heroine  of  the  drama — Bama  and 
Sita — kept  up  a  tedious  colloquy,  interspersed  with 
jokes,  for  hours.  The  former — who,  be  it  remembered, 
was  supposed  to  be  a  god — smoked  a  cigar  all  the  while, 
and  occasionally  ejected  saliva  with  perfect  indifference 
to  all  appearances  and  to  all  laws  of  congruity,  while 
every  now  and  again  Sita,  in  spite  of  a  tight  dress, 
varied  the  monotony  of  the  dialogue  by  executing 
a  slow  dance,  characterized  by  strange  contortions, 
twistings,  and  wrigglings  of  the  limbs.     Hideous  masks 


RELIGIOUS   DKAMAS    IN   BURMA   AND    TIBET.         349 

were  at  intervals  assumed  by  the  actors,  and,  of  course, 
by  the  demons  who  intervened  at  odd  moments  with 
much  ludicrous  gesticulation.  The  action  of  the  play 
went  on  continuously  for  about  ten  davs,  during  which 
period  people  came  and  went  as  they  liked,  and  the 
last  comers  entered  into  the  progress  of  the  plot  with 
as  much  interest  as  if  they  had  witnessed  tlie  whole. 
There  is  never  much  originality  of  invention  in  these 
religious  plays.  The  Indian  heroic  poems  and  the  five 
hundred  and  fifty  birth-stories  (see  p.  63)  of  the  Buddha 
furnish  the  basis  of  all. 

The  religious  dramas  of  Tibet  are  of  a  somewhat 
different  character.  The  following  description  is  founded 
on  Dr.  Schlagintweit's  account  (p.  233),  and  on  that 
of  Mrs.  Bridges  in  her  interesting  '  Travels '  (John 
Murray,  1883,  p.  130). 

The  dramatis  personse  consist  of  three  classes. — i.  Tutelary  deities 
or  good  genii,  called  Dragshed  (Dragged),  who  ward  off  the  assaults  of 
evil  demons;  2.  Evil  demons;  3.  Men,  The  actors  of  each  class  are 
distinguished  by  their  masks.  The  first  class — that  is  the  Dragsheds 
or  good  genii^wear  masks  of  enormous  size  and  terrific  aspect^.  The 
second  class — that  is  the  Evil  demons — wear  larger  masks  of  a  dark 
colour,  and  their  garments  are  well  padded  to  deaden  the  force  of  the 
blows  showered  upon  them.  The  third  class — that  is  the  Men^ — wear 
the  usual  dress  of  human  beings,  and  masks  of  a  natural  size  and 
colour,  while  under  their  clothes  they  carry  heavy  wooden  sticks,  with 
which  at  times,  during  the  progress  of  the  drama,  they  belabour  the 
demons.  The  gods  also  get  well  knocked  about  by  the  demons,  much 
to  the  amusement  of  the  spectators. 

The  drama  is  preceded  by  the  recital  of  hymns  and  prayers  and  by 

'  These  good  deities,  according  to  Schlagintweit,  are  represented 
with  formidable  countenances  and  dark  complexions,  and  a  third  eye 
in  the  forehead — probably  the  eye  of  wisdom,  as  in  the  Dhyani-Buddhas 
(see  p.  203  of  these  Lectures). 


350  RELIGIOUS   DRAMAS. 

noisy  music.  The  Dragsheds  occupy  the  centre,  the  men  are  on  their 
right  and  the  demons  on  their  left.  At  short  intervals  the  men  and 
the  demons  execute  slow  dances,  each  group  by  itself.  At  last,  an 
evil  sjiirit  and  a  man  step  forth.  The  evil  spirit  then  tries,  in  a 
plausible  speech,  to  tempt  the  man  to  violate  some  precept  of  morality, 
while  other  evil  spirits  approach  and  chime  in.  The  man  at  first 
stands  firm,  but  gradually  gives  way  and  is  about  to  yield,  when  other 
men  come  forward  and  entreat  him  not  to  be  seduced  by  the  artful 
suggestions  of  the  demons.  He  is  then  closely  pressed  by  the  two 
opposite  parties,  but  in  the  end  takes  the  advice  of  his  human 
counsellors.  Upon  this  all  the  men  break  out  into  praise  of  the  Drag- 
sheds,  to  whose  presence  and  assistance  they  ascribe  the  victory.  The 
Dragsheds  now  proceed  to  punish  the  evil  demons.  The  leading 
Dragshed,  who  is  distinguished  by  an  unusually  large  yellow  mask, 
advances  against  them  surrounded  by  about  a  dozen  followers.  Other 
Dragsheds  next  rush  out  from  the  back-ground,  shoot  arrows,  throw 
stones,  and  even  fire  with  muskets  upon  the  demons,  while  the  men 
belabour  them  with  their  sticks,  hitherto  concealed  under  their 
clothes.  The  demons  are  routed,  and  run  in  every  direction  pursued 
by  the  good  genii.  The  drama  concludes  by  all  the  actors  (men  and 
demons  included)  singing  hymns  in  honour  of  the  victorious  tutelary 
genii. 

Among  the  spectators  (at  the  performance  witnessed 
by  Mrs.  Bridges  at  Leh)  were  six  deities,  represented 
by  six  Lamas  seated  on  a  bench  with  umbrellas  over 
their  heads.  They  had  incense  swung  before  them  by 
attendant  priests. 

This  curious  dramatic  performance  is  paralleled  in 
India  by  the  Hindu  drama  called  Prabodha-candrodaya, 
'  Rise  of  the  moon  of  true  knowledge,'  in  which  we 
have  Faith,  Volition,  Opinion,  Imagination,  Contem- 
plation, Devotion,  Quietude,  Friendship,  &c.,  on  one 
side  ;  Error,  Self-conceit,  Hypocrisy,  Love,  Passion, 
Anger,  Avarice,  on  the  other.  The  two  sets  of  char- 
acters are,  of  course,  opposed  to  each  other,  the  object 


WEAPONS    USED    AGAINST   EVIL    SPIRITS.  35 1 

of  the  play  being  to  show  how  the  orthodox  faith  of  the 
Hindus  became  victorious  over  the  erroneous  doctrine 
of  the  Buddha — the  Buddhists  and  other  heretical  sects 
being  represented  as  adherents  of  the  losing  side. 

Then — to  take  a  parallel  nearer  home — we  find  similar 
reHgious  dramas  acted  in  England  not  so  very  long  ago 
(about  the  time  of  Henry  VIII).  For  example,  in  the 
old  English  morality  play,  called  '  Every-man,'  some  of 
the  dramatis  personse  on  the  one  side  are — God,  Death, 
Every-man,  Fellowship,  Kindred,  Good-deeds,  Know- 
ledge, Confession,  Beauty,  Strength,  Discretion;  while  on 
the  other  are  personifications  of  the  opjoosite  qualities. 
Then,  again,  in  '  Lusty  Juventus,'  we  have  a  medley  of 
Good  Counsel,  Knowledge,  Satan,  Hypocrisy,  Fellow- 
ship, Abominable  Living,  God's  Merciful  Promises. 

And  here  with  reference  to  the  supposed  contest  con- 
tinually going  on  between  good  and  evil,  and  the  parti- 
cipation of  human  beings  in  this  terrible  struggle,  we 
may  note  that  the  mystical  thunderbolt  called  Dorje 
(p.  322)  is  not  the  only  implement  of  spiritual  warfare 
employed  by  the  Lamas  against  the  demons  ^.  Another 
important  weapon  is  the  Phurbu  or  'nail,'  described  as 
triangular  and  wedge-shaped,  with  the  thin  end  very 
sharp-pointed,  and  with  the  head  of  Tamdin  (a  par- 
ticular Dragshed  =  Haya-griva,  noted  for  his  power) 
emerging  from  the  broad  end  and  surmounted  by  a 
half-thunderbolt  for  a  handle. 

A  ccording  to  Schlagintweit,  this  weapon  is  often  made 
of  cardboard,  on  which  mystical  sentences  (Dharanis)  in 

^  See  the  account  of  the  female  demons  called  Tanma  at  p.  457  of 
these  Lectures. 


3^)2 


WEAPONS    USED    AGAIXST   ETIL    SPIRITS. 


Sanskrit  are  inscribed,  some  against  the  demons  of  the 
South,  some  against  those  of  the  East,  and  some  against 
those  of  the  South-east.  In  case  of  illness  a  Lama  goes 
round  the  house  turning  the  point  of  the  Phurbu  in  all 
directions  and  uttering  magical  spells. 

Most  of  the  Dharanis  end  with  the  syllables  Hum 
phat,  the  potency  of  which  in  scaring  evil  demons  is 
irresistible.     Many  charms  begin  with  Ah  Tamdin. 

Those  Phurbus  are  considered  most  efficacious  which 
are  inscribed  with  mystical  syllables  and  words  com- 
posed by  either  the  Dalai  Lama  or  Panchen  Lama. 
These  are  sold  for  large  sums.  It  is  said  (Schlagint- 
weit,  260)  that  such  Phurbus  form  an  important  article 
of  trade  for  the  Mongolian  pilgrims  returning  from  Tibet. 

I  was  fortunate  enough  to  meet  with  a  remarkable 
specimen  of  a  magical  weapon  of  this  kind  (called 
Phur-pa  by  Jiischke)  made  of  metal,  and  shaped  like  a 
dagger  with  three  edges,  one  for  each  of  the  three 
classes  of  demons  inhabiting  the  three  quarters.  The 
handle  is  composed  of  a  Dorje  (p.  322),  and  is  sur- 
mounted by  carvings  of  the  heads  of  the  three  most 
powerful  Dragsheds.  I  here  give  a  representation 
of  it^ 


'  The  sliajie  is  not  quite  the  same  as  that  of  the  Phurl)u,  but 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  being  a  kindred  weaiDon.  I  purchased  my 
specimen  at  DarjTliug,  and  was  assured  that  it  came  from  Tibet,  and 
was  used  by  the  Tibetans  in  the  same  way  as  the  Phurbu. 


DOMESTIC   RITES    AND    USAGES.  353 

It  may  be  easily  understood  that  among  a  people, 
steeped  in  superstition,  a  man  armed  with  such  a 
weapon  as  this — composed  of  the  heads  of  three  potent 
genii,  a  divine  thunderbolt  and  a  triple-edged  dagger — 
would  be  regarded  as  a  match  for  the  whole  demon- 
host. 

In  Burma  the  tattooing  of  mystical  squares,  triangles 
and  cabalistic  diagrams  and  figures  on  various  parts  of 
the  body,  seems  to  be  regarded  as  a  sufficient  substitute 
for  the  use  of  magical  weapons,  and  is  held  to  be  highly 
efficacious. 

Obviously  we  may  contrast  the  Christian  armoury 
described  by  S.  Paul  (Ephes.  vi.  11),'  the  shield  of  faith 
and  the  sword  of  the  Spirit.'  We  might  also  contrast 
the  words  of  Christ,  *  Rejoice  not,  that  the  spirits  are 
subject  unto  you;  but  rather  rejoice,  because  your  names 
are  written  in  heaven '  (S.  Luke  x.  20). 

Domestic  Bites  and  Usages. 

I  now  pass  on  to  domestic  rites  and  usages,  which  are 
as  numerous  and  important  in  Buddhist  countries  as  in 
India.  It  is  said,  indeed,  that  in  Tibet  and  Mongolia  no 
one  is  so  poor  as  not  to  possess  an  altar  in  his  dwelling 
on  which  he  daily  lays  his  offerings,  and  before  which 
he  performs  devotions. 

In  Ceylon  and  Burma  certain  ceremonies  take  place 
soon  after  the  birth  of  a  child.  Mr.  Scott,  describing 
those  in  Burma,  says  that  a  fortnight  after  bii'th  a  for- 
tunate day  and  hour  is  fixed  by  an  astrologer  for  the 
naming  of  the  infant.     A  feast  is  prepared,  and  all  the 

A  a 


354  DOMESTIC   RITES   AISHD    USAGES. 

friends  and  relations  of  the  family  are  invited.  '  The 
child's  head  is  usually  washed  for  the  first  time  on  this 
day/  and  some  one  suggests  a  name. 

The  name  actually  given  appears  to  be  a  matter  of 
choice,  but  this  is  not  so.  The  consonants  of  the  lan- 
guage are  divided  into  groups,  which  are  assigned  to  the 
days  of  the  week,  Sunday  having  all  the  vowels  to  itself. 
'  It  is  an  invariable  rule  in  all  respectable  families  that 
the  child's  name  must  begin  with  one  of  the  letters 
belonging  to  the  day  on  which  it  was  born,  but  within 
these  limits  any  name  may  be  chosen.'  A  common 
belief  is  that,  according  to  the  day  of  the  week  (or 
rather  the  constellation  representing  that  day)  on  which 
a  child  is  born,  so  will  its  character  be. 

In  this  way  every  person's  probable  characteristics 
may  be  inferred.  For  example,  a  man  born  on  a  Mon- 
day is  likely  to  be  jealous ;  on  Tuesday,  honest ;  on 
Wednesday,  hot-tempered — but  soon  appeased — this 
characteristic  being  intensified  under  the  influence  of 
Eahu  \ 

Then,  again,  if  born  on  a  Thursday,  a  man  will  probably 
be  mild  ;  on  Friday,  talkative ;  on  Saturday,  ill-tem- 
pered and  quarrelsome ;  on  Sunday,  parsimonious. 
Saturday  is  a  bad  day  for  everything.  Not  only  has 
every  day  its  special  character  and  its  fixed  letters,  but 
there  is  also  (according  to  Mr.  Scott)  a  particular  animal 
assigned  to  symbolize  it — for  example,  a  guinea-pig 
stands  for  Friday;  a  dragon  for  Saturday;  a  tiger  for 
Monday — and  red  or  yellow  wax  candles  are  made  in 

^  See  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  345. 


USAGES    AT   THE    BIRTH    OF    A    CHILD.  355 

the  forms  of  these  animals  to  be  offered  at  the  Pagoda 
by  the  pious.  Each  worshipper  offers  the  creature- 
candle  representing  his  birth-day. 

Then  a  careful  note  is  made  of  the  exact  hour  of 
birth,  with  the  important  object  of  drawing  up  the 
child's  horoscope.  This  may  be  delayed  till  the  fifth 
or  sixth  year,  and  a  Brahman  astrologer  may  be  called 
in  for  the  purpose.  He  records  the  year,  the  month, 
the  day  and  hour  at  which  the  cliild  was  born  ;  the 
name  given  to  it  and  the  planet  in  the  ascendant  at 
the  moment.  All  this  is  scratched  neatly  on  a  palm- 
leaf  with  a  metal  style.  On  the  other  side  are  a  num- 
ber of  cabalistic  squares  and  numbers  from  which  future 
calculations  may  be  made. 

A  person  born  on  Monday  remains  under  the  influence 
of  the  moon  for  fifteen  years.  Then  he  passes  under 
Mars  for  eight  years.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three 
Mercury  presides  over  him,  and  so  on  through  all  the 
jDlanets  to  the  end  of  his  life,  which  may  be  protracted 
to  108  years. 

Kahu,  and  especially  Saturn,  have  a  particularly 
sinister  influence.  A  man  does  most  of  the  stupid  and 
wicked  things  in  his  life  while  he  is  in  Saturn's 
house.     Other  details  will  be  found  in  '  Shway  Yoe.' 

The  horoscope  is  carefully  kept  by  the  parents  until 
the  child  is  old  enough  to  take  care  of  it  himself,  and 
thenceforward  it  is  guarded  as  a  valuable  possession. 

All  these  Buddhist  customs  have  their  counterpart  in 
the  ceremonies  of  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism. 

For  example,  the  Hindiis  have  their  birth-ceremonies 
(Jata-karman),  and  their  name-giving  ceremony  (Nama- 

A  a  2 


356  DOMESTIC   RITES    AND    USAGES. 

karana^),  and  the  latter  is  a  solemn  religious  act  fraught 
with  momentous  consequences  in  its  bearing  on  a  child's 
future.  Hence  Hindu  boys  are  generally  called  after 
some  god,  or  the  name  indicates  that  the  child  is 
the  god's  servant.  Horoscopes,  too,  are  as  important 
in  India  as  in  Buddhist  countries-. 

In  India,  too,  all  Brahman  boys  go  through  the 
ceremony  of  tonsure  and  cutting  off  the  hair. 

Among  the  Buddhists  of  Burma  a  boy  is  sent  to  the 
monastery  school  at  about  the  age  of  eight.  Before 
he  can  become  a  novice  he  has  to  undergo  the  hair- 
abscission  ceremony,  followed  by  shaving  every  fort- 
night (as  before  described).  But  those  who  afterwards 
elect  to  lead  a  secular  life  wear  long  hair,  to  wash 
which  is  regarded  as  a  kind  of  religious  ceremonial,  and 
only  to  be  performed  about  once  a  month,  partly,  says 
Mr.  Scott,  because  the  washing  of  a  Burman's  luxuriant 
hair  takes  a  long  time,  and  partly  because  too  frequent 
ablutions  *  would  disturb  and  irritate  the  good  genius 
who  dwells  in  the  head  and  protects  the  man.' 

It  is  considered  unlucky  to  wash  the  head  on  a 
Monday,  Friday,  or  Saturday ;  and  '  parents  sending 
their  boy  to  a  monastery  must  remember  not  to  cut 
his  hair  off  on  a  Monday,  or  on  a  Friday,  or  on  his 
birth-day.' 

It  is  noticeable  that  a  kind  of  baptism  is  practised 
in    Tibet    and    Mongolia.      It    is    usual    to    sprinkle 

^  See  my  work  on  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  pp.  357,  358, 
370,  etc. 

^  See  the  translation  of  a  horoscope  given  in  '  Brahmanism  and 
Hinduism,'  p.  373. 


BIRTH-CEREMONIES.      AMULETS.  357 

children  with  consecrated  water,  or  even  to  immerse 
them  entirely  on  the  third  or  tenth  day  after  birth. 
This  is  called  Khrus-sol  (according  to  Jaschke). 

The  priest  consecrates  the  water  by  reciting  some 
formula,  while  candles  and  incense  are  burning.  He 
then  dips  the  child  three  times,  blesses  it,  and  gives  it 
a  name.  After  performing  the  ceremony,  he  draws  up 
the  infant's  horoscope. 

Then,  so  soon  as  the  child  can  walk  and  talk,  a 
second  ceremony  takes  place,  when  prayers  are  said  for 
its  happy  life,  and  an  amulet  or  little  bag  is  hung 
round  its  neck,  filled  with  spells  and  charms  against 
evil  spirits  and  diseases. 

The  use  of  amulets  (Sanskrit  kavaca),  charms  and 
spells  in  Northern  Buddhist  countries  is  universal. 

At  Darjiling  I  noticed  that  among  the  crowds  of 
persons  who  frequented  the  bazaar — many  of  whom 
were  travellers  from  Tibet,  Nepal,  Bhutan,  and  Sikkim 
— almost  every  one  wore  an  amulet,  or  a  string  of 
amulets  round  the  neck.  Most  of  these  amulets  are 
simply  ornamental  boxes  or  receptacles  for  supposed 
relics  of  saints,  or  for  little  images,  or  pictures, 
or  for  prayer-formularies,  worn  like  breast-plates  or 
phylacteries.  They  are  composed  of  wood,  bone,  and 
not  infrequently  of  beautifully- worked  filigree  silver, 
embossed  and  ornamented  with  turquoise.  The  shape 
is  sometimes  square,  sometimes  circular  or  curved,  and. 
brought  round  to  a  point  ^  I  purchased  several  speci- 
mens, but  the  vendor  of  any  amulet  in  actual  use  in- 

^  According  to  Scblagintweit,  those  amulets  which  are  curved  round 
to  a  point  are  intended  to  represent  the  leaf  of  the  sacred  fig-tree. 


358 


DOMESTIC    RITES   AND    USAGES. 


variably  removed  the  contents  before  consenting  to  part 
with  it.  Here  is  a  specimen  of  one  of  exceptionally  beau- 
tiful design  which  was  given  to  me  by  Mr.  Sarat  Chandra 
Das.  It  was  taken  from  the  neck  of  a  woman  in  the 
bazaar,  but  not  purchased  without  much  difficulty. 


We  pass  on  next  to  the  Buddhist  marriage-ceremony. 
This  in  Ceylon,  Burma,  Tibet,  Mongolia,  and  indeed  in 
all  Buddhist  countries,  is  properly  a  purely  civil  con- 
tract witnessed  only  by  parents  and  guardians.  We 
have  already  pointed  out,  that  true  Buddhism  considers 


MAEEIAGE-CEEEMONIES.  359 

celibacy  to  be  the  only  sure  means  of  attaining  real 
sanctity  of  character.  Consistently  with  this  idea,  it 
has  not  prescribed  any  religious  ceremony  to  be  per- 
formed by  monks  or  priests,  as  a  condition  of  the  vali- 
dity of  marriage  ^ 

Hence  among  Buddhists  the  ceremony  of  marriage  is 
very  simple,  and  has  no  religious  character,  or  at  any 
rate  no  complicated  religious  observances  connected 
with  it,  as  among  the  Hindus^.  In  fact  the  celibate 
monks  of  true  Buddhism  would  be  much  scandalized  if 
they  were  asked  to  take  part  in  the  celebration  of  a 
wedding,  or  even  to  ratify  it  by  their  presence. 

The  principal  ceremony  consists  in  a  feast  given 
by  the  bridegroom  or  his  parents,  to  which  all  the 
relations,  friends,  and  neighbours  are  invited.  Never- 
theless, in  most  Buddhist  countries  in  the  present  day 
the  monks  manage  to  have  some  remunerative  work  to 
do  in  connexion  with  weddings  ;  for  their  business  is  to 
fix  the  most  auspicious  days  for  the  performance  of  the 
ceremony,  in  return  for  which  they  receive  offerings  of 
various  kinds.  We  know  that  in  India  astrology  is  a 
chief  factor  in  all  marriage-arrangements.  Similarly  in 
most  Buddhist  countries  no  wedding  can  take  place  till 
the  astrologer,  who  is  usually  a  monk-priest,  has  been 


^  In  this  it  did  good  service,  at  least  for  a  time ;  for  the  cost  of 
marriage-ceremonies  among  the  Hindus  often  cripples  the  resources 
of  a  family  for  years.  The  marriage  of  the  poorest  persons  sometimes 
entails  expenses  in  gifts  to  the  Brahmans,  etc.,  to  the  amount  of  300 
rupees. 

2  Mr.  Scott  points  out  in  his  'Burman'  that  this  is  especially  the 
case  in  Burma. 


360  DOMESTIC   KITES    AND    USAGES. 

consulted  as  to  lucky  and  unlucky  combinations,  and 
the  benign  or  l^aleful  aspects  of  planets  and  stars. 
For  example,  in  Burma,  Saturdays  and  Thursdays  are 
pronounced  unlucky  days,  and  it  would  be  the  height 
of  imprudence  to  marry  in  certain  months  of  the  year. 
Then,  again,  a  woman  born  on  a  Friday  would  be  guilty 
of  utter  folly  if  she  married  a  man  born  on  a  Monday, 
seeing  that  one  or  other  would  soon  die  ^ ;  and  so  on 
through  a  long  list  of  auspicious  and  inauspicious 
potentialities. 

It  should,  however,  be  set  down  to  the  credit  of 
Buddhism  that  wives  and  daughters  are  not  imprisoned 
in  Zananas,  as  among  Hindus  and  Muhammadans.  I 
was  present  at  an  evening-party  given  by  a  rich  native 
of  Ceylon,  when  the  ladies  of  the  family  were  introduced 
to  the  European  guests,  and  conversed  freely  with  the 
rest  of  the  company.  Nor  is  the  marriage  of  mere  boys 
and  girls  insisted  on  in  Buddhist  countries  as  in  India. 
The  bridegroom  is  seldom  of  a  less  age  than  eighteen 
or  nineteen. 

Then,  again,  not  only  births  and  marriages,  but  ill- 
nesses and  death  are  in  the  present  day  a  source  of 
revenue  to  the  Buddhist  monkhood. 

First,  as  to  sichness. 

In  Ceylon,  when  any  one  is  dangerously  ill,  the 
monk-priest  is  summoned  from  the  neighbouring  Vihiira, 
after  first  sending  offerings  of  flowers,  oil,  and  food. 
Then  a  temporary  preaching-place  is  erected  near  the 
house,  and  all  the  relatives  and  friends,  and  if  possible 

^  Scott's  '  Burman,'  p,  125. 


USAGES    IN    SICKNESS.       CEYLON   AND    BUEMA.      36 1 

the  sick  man  himself,  listen  to  the  reading  of  the  Law 
(Bana)  for  about  six  hours.  The  part  especially  read 
and  intoned  is  the  Eatna-valiya  section  of  the  Pirit 
(see  p.  3 1 7).  After  the  Bana  a  number  of  offerings  are 
given  to  the  reciting  priest,  iDcluding  a  piece  of  calico, 
one  end  of  which  is  held  by  the  priest,  and  the  otlier 
by  the  sick  man.  Then  the  priest  pronounces  a  bene- 
diction, and  says  words  to  the  following  effect : — *  By 
reverence  do  the  wise  secure  health,  by  almsgiving  do 
they  lay  up  treasures  for  themselves  \' 

When  the  sick  man  is  likely  to  die  the  priest 
repeats  the  Three-refuge  formula  (p.  78),  the  five 
commandments  (p.  126),  and  the  Sati-patthana  Sutta 
(p.  49). 

In  Burma,  if  an  epidemic  happens  to  break  out  in 
any  village,  the  people  begin  by  painting  the  supposed 
figure  of  an  evil  spirit  on  a  common  earthenware  water- 
pot,  and  then  solemnly  smashing  it  to  pieces  at  sunset 
with  a  heavy  stick  -.  Then  as  soon  as  it  gets  dark  all 
the  villagers  shout,  yell,  shriek,  and  make  every  kind 
of  deafening  din,  with  the  hope  of  frightening  away 
the  evil  spirit  who  has  caused  the  disease.  This  pro- 
cess is  continued  for  three  nights,  and  if  no  good  result 
follows  the  monk-priests  are  called  in  from  the  monas- 
tery. They  recite  the  ten  precepts,  chant  the  Law  up 
and  down  the  road,  and  intone  a  particular  sermon  of 
the  Buddha,  by  the  preaching  of  which  he  once  drove 


^  My  authority  for  this  is  i\Ir.  J.  F.  Dickson's   pamphlet  called 
Notes  and  illustrations  of  Buddhism,'  etc. 
2  Scott's  'Burman/  i.  282. 


362  DOMESTIC    RITES   AND   USAGES. 

away  a  pestilence.  These  means  are,  of  course,  not 
effective  unless  abundant  alms  and  gifts  are  bestowed 
upon  the  monastery. 

According  to  Koeppen  and  Hue  the  art  of  medicine 
in  Northern  Buddhist  countries  is  practised  exclusively 
by  the  Lamas.  The  theory  is  that  there  are  140 
different  maladies,  and  that  most  of  these  are  caused 
by  devils.  The  monk-priests  are  the  sole  doctors,  and  a 
sick  j)erson  can  only  be  cured  by  them.  One  process  is 
simple.  It  begins  by  the  Lama  doctor  writing  the  name 
of  a  remedy  upon  a  morsel  of  paper,  moistening  it 
with  saliva,  and  rolling  it  into  a  pill.  The  patient 
takes  the  paper  pellet  with  as  much  faith  as  if  he  were 
swallowing  the  veritable  drug.  Many  Mongols  believe 
that  '  it  is  precisely  the  same,  whether  you  swallow  a 
drug  or  its  written  appellation.'  Then,  '  if  the  patient 
be  poor,  the  devil  is  a  little  one,  and  may  be  dislodged 
l)y  a  few  prayers  ;  but,  if  he  be  rich,  the  case  is  different ; 
fine  clothes,  handsome  boots,  or  even  a  good  horse  must 
be  presented,  or  he  will  not  consent  to  turn  out.' 

A  very  effective  medicine  may  be  composed  of  the 
bones  of  some  pious  Lama  ground  into  a  powder.  This 
may  be  given  alone  or  in  combination  with  other  sub- 
stances. 

It  appears  to  be  essential  that  the  prayers  recited  on 
these  occasions  should  be  accompanied  by  terrific  noises. 
M.  Hue  relates  a  story  of  an  old  woman — the  aunt  of  a 
certain  chief — who  was  one  day  attacked  by  intermit- 
tent fever.  The  Lama,  of  course,  announced  that  a  devil 
had  possession  of  her  body ;  and  so  in  the  evening  he 
and  eight  other  Lamas  began  operations  for  its  expul- 


USAGES   IN   SICKNESS.      TIBET.  ''6 -J 

sion.  First  tliey  made  a  little  figure  or  manikin  of 
dried  herbs,  which  they  called  the  devil  of  intermittent 
fevers.  This  they  stuck  upright  in  the  tent  of  the  sick 
woman.  Then  at  eleven  o'clock  at  night  the  Lamas 
ranged  themselves  at  the  back  of  the  tent,  armed  with 
bells,  tambourines,  conch-shells,  and  other  noisy  in- 
struments. Nine  members  of  the  ftimily  closed  the 
circle  in  front,  crouching  on  the  ground,  while  the  old 
woman  remained  seated  on  her  heels  in  front  of  the 
manikin.  Next,  '  at  a  given  signal,  the  orchestra  per- 
formed an  overture  capable  of  scaring  away  the  most 
imperturbable  and  obstinate  devil,  while  all  the  secular 
assistants  beat  time  with  their  hands  to  the  hubbub  of 
the  instruments  and  the  howling  of  the  prayers.  When 
this  demoniacal  music  was  over,  the  chief  Lama  began 
his  exorcisms,  scattering  millet  seeds  around  as  he  pro- 
ceeded ;  sometimes  speaking  low,  sometimes  in  sten- 
torian tones.  Then,  appearing  to  throw  himself  into  a 
passion,  he  addressed  animated  appeals,  with  violent 
gesticulation,  to  the  manikin.'  Finally,  after  further 
incantations,  he  gave  a  signal ;  the  Lamas  thundered 
out  a  noisy  chorus,  the  instruments  added  to  the  din, 
and  the  members  of  the  family  rushing  out  in  file,  made 
the  circuit  of  the  tent,  striking  it  frantically  with 
stakes,  and  uttering  terrific  cries.  Finally,  the  chief 
Lama  and  his  assistants,  after  joining  in  the  yells,  set 
fire  to  the  manikin.  This  ended  the  ceremony;  the 
demon  being  compelled  to  beat  a  retreat. 

Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das  has  given  an  account  of  a 
somewhat  similar  ceremony  in  Tibet  performed  by  some 
Lamas  to  cure  him  of  a  sickness.     An  image  represent- 


364  DOMESTIC   RITES    AND   USAGES. 

ing  the  patient,  and  supposed  to  resemble  him,  was 
constructed,  and  a  suit  of  his  clothes  placed  in  front 
of  it,  together  with  portions  of  his  usual  food  and  drink. 
Two  Lamas  then  muttered  mystic  sentences,  ringing  a 
bell,  waving  a  Dorje  (see  p.  323  of  these  Lectures),  and 
twisting  their  fingers  and  hands  into  the  mysterious 
shapes  called  Mudra  (p.  241).  Next  they  broke  out 
into  alternate  exhortations  and  threats,  and  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  ceremony  the  officiating  priests 
supplicated  the  lord  of  death  (Yama)  to  accept  the 
image  in  place  of  the  moribund  man. 

On  another  occasion,  when  Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das 
was  seriously  ill  in  Tibet,  an  effective  method  of  curing 
his  disease  was  proposed  to  him,  and,  with  his  consent, 
actually  carried  out.  This  mainly  consisted  in  the 
ransoming  of  fish-life.  A  certain  Lama  started  off  for 
a  fisherman's  village,  and  in  a  short  time  returned  in  a 
high  state  of  satisfaction.  He  had  saved  the  lives  of 
five  hundred  fishes  for  the  benefit  of  the  sick  man. 
The  merit  of  this  deed  was  credited  to  the  patient  on 
his  repeating  the  following  prayer  : — 

'  By  virtue  of  my  having  ransomed  the  lives  of  these 
animals,  let  health,  longevity,  prosperity,  and  happiness 
perpetually  accrue  to  me.' 

In  the  same  way  in  Burma,  in  times  of  great  heat  and 
drought,  when  the  ponds  and  tanks  appear  to  be  on  the 
point  of  drying  up,  it  is  held  to  be  a  work  of  enormous 
merit  to  rescue  fish,  put  them  in  jars,  and  transport 
them  alive  to  the  rivers.     (See  Scott's  'Burman,'  ii.  43.) 

Similarly  a  bird-catcher  will  sell  live  birds  to  pious 
persons,  that  they  may  gain  merit  by  releasing  them. 


USAGES  AT  DEATH.   CREMATION.        365 

We  pass  on,  in  the  next  place,  to  the  usages  and 
ceremonies  common  at  death. 

If  a  man's  soul  is  to  be  separated  from  his  body 
properly  and  peacefully,  so  as  not  to  hurt  the  survivors, 
and  in  a  manner  likely  to  cause  a  happy  re-birth  for 
himself,  alms  must  be  bestowed  on  the  monk-priests, 
and  their  presence  must  be  invited  for  the  repetition  of 
prayers.  In  Ceylon  and  Burma  monks  go  to  the  houses 
of  mourners  and  repeat  portions  of  the  Pirit  (see  p.  317). 

In  Tibet  the  priest  not  only  recites  prayers  but  com- 
presses the  skull  till  it  appears  to  crack,  or  else  the  hair 
is  torn  off  and  a  little  incision  is  made,  to  enable  the 
dying  man's  soul  to  escape.  The  priest  then  settles 
what  method  of  burial  is  to  be  followed,  and  the  place, 
day  and  hour,  all  of  which  depend  on  astrological 
combinations,  known  only  to  him. 

The  method  of  disposing  of  a  dead  body  differs  in  all 
Buddhist  countries  according  to  station,  condition,  rank, 
and  wealth. 

In  Ceylon  the  bodies  of  monks  are  all  burnt,  and  the 
cremation  ceremonies  are  carried  out  under  decorated 
arches  or  canopies,  which  are  never  removed,  but  left  to 
crumble  away. 

In  Burma  the  cremation  of  a  monk  distinguished  for 
sanctity  is  an  affair  of  great  state  and  ceremonial.  The 
body  (see  Mr.  Scott's  '  Burman,'  ii.  331)  is  first  em- 
balmed, and  next  tightly  wrapped  in  white  cloth,  which 
is  varnished  and  afterwards  covered  with  gold-leaf 
The  corpse  thus  gilded  is  placed  in  an  unclosed  inner 
coffin,  and  left  exposed  to  view  for  a  considerable  time. 
When  fastened  down,  the  inner  coffin  is  covered  with 


366  DOMESTIC   KITES   AND    USAGES. 

gold-leaf,  like  the  body.  An  outer  sarcophagus  is  then 
prepared,  and  painted  to  represent  scenes  from  the 
lives  of  the  Buddha.  This  is  placed  in  a  building 
erected  for  the  purpose,  and  there  the  body  lies  in  state 
for  several  months,  while  a  constant  line  of  pilgrim- 
worshippers  pass  in  and  out.  In  process  of  time,  when 
enough  money  for  the  expenses  has  been  collected,  a 
grand  cremation  takes  place  under  a  lofty  canopy,  which 
on  special  occasions  may  be  fifty  or  sixty  feet  high. 
The  calcined  bones  are  then  reverentially  collected,  and 
either  buried  near  the  temple  or  pounded  and  made  up 
into  a  paste,  with  which  an  image  of  the  Buddha  is 
constructed  for  worship  in  the  monastery. 

In  Tibet  the  bodies  of  the  Grand  Lamas  are  generally 
embalmed  and  preserved  in  monuments  or  Sttipas.  Other 
Lamas  and  monks  distinguished  for  sanctity  are  burnt, 
and  their  ashes  are  either  distributed  as  relics,  or  ^ire- 
served  in  idols  or  in  small  Dagabas.  Kings,  princes, 
and  great  men  are  also  burnt,  and  of  course  with  much 
ceremony  and  repetition  of  prayers.  Then  for  a  long  time 
afterwards  prayers  continue  to  be  recited  by  the  priests, 
the  object  being  to  propitiate  Yam  a,  god  of  Death,  and 
to  deliver  the  deceased  from  the  possible  purgatorial 
torments  of  one  of  the  hells.  It  is  said  that  this  repeti- 
tion of  prayers  is  prolonged,  in  the  case  of  the  rich,  for 
seven  weeks,  and  in  the  case  of  princes,  for  a  whole  year. 

Mr.  J.  Ware  Edgar,  C.  S.  I.,  in  his  interesting  Eeport 
of  his  visit  to  Sikkim  in  1873,  gives  a  description 
of  the  remarkable  funeral  ceremonies  performed  on 
the  occasion  of  the  death  of  the  Raja  of  Sikkim's 
sister  (see  p.  62),  which  I  here  abbreviate  : — 


OTHER  FUNEEAL  CEREMONIES.         367 

The  Raja's  sister  had  died  a  few  days  after  his  return  to  Choombi. 
The  body  had  been  buried  at  Choombi,  but  her  clothes  had  been  sent 
to  Toomlong,  and  her  soul  was  supposed  to  accompany  them.  There 
a  lay-figure  meant  to  represent  her,  dressed  in  her  costume  as  a  nun, 
and  wearing  a  gilt  mitre  and  a  long  white  veil,  was  placed  on  a  kind 
of  throne  to  the  right  of  the  great  altar  in  the  principal  chapel. 
Before  the  figure  was  a  table,  on  which  were  difierent  kinds  of  food. 
On  another  table  were  various  things  which  had  l)elonged  to  her, 
while  on  a  third,  108  little  brass  lamps  were  arranged  in  rows.  Some 
days  afterwards  the  lay-figure  of  the  nun  was  taken  to  Pemyangchi. 
There,  for  three  days  the  figure  was  seated  before  the  altar,  and  the 
monks  chanted  the  litanies  for  her  soul,  which  had  accompanied  her 
clothes  from  Choombi.  On  the  third  day  towards  evening  the  tea- 
cup of  the  nun  was  freshly  filled  with  tea,  and  all  the  monks  solemnly 
drank  tea  with  her.  The  monks  chanted  the  litanies,  and  the  Head 
Lama  went  through  some  elaborate  ceremonies.  At  about  nine 
o'clock  the  chanting  ceased,  and  the  Lama  made  a  long  speech  to 
the  soul  of  the  nun,  in  which  he  told  her  that  all  that  could  be  done 
to  make  her  journey  to  another  world  easy,  had  been  done,  and  that 
now  she  would  have  to  go  alone  and  unassisted  to  appear  before  the 
King  and  Judge  of  the  dead. 

'  You  will  have  to  leave  your  robes,  your  mitre,  and  your  veil,' 
said  he,  '  and  clad  in  the  black  garment  of  your  sins,  or  in  the  shining 
garment  of  your  good  deeds,  you  will  be  shown  the  mirror  of  the  just 
King.  Your  gold  and  silver,  your  i-ank,  your  good  name  will  not 
help  you,  when  your  good  deeds  are  weighed  against  your  evil  deeds, 
in  the  scales  of  the  King.  If  you  have  done  ill,  you  will  be  punished  ; 
but  if  your  sins  are  found  to  be  lighter  than  your  good  works,  your 
reward  will  be  great  indeed.' 

When  the  Lama  had  finished  his  address,  some  of  the  monks  took 
down  the  lay-figure  and  undressed  it,  while  others  formed  a  proces- 
sion and  conducted  the  soul  of  the  nun  into  the  darkness  outside 
the  monastery,  with  a  discordant  noise  of  conch-shells,  thigh-bone 
trumpets,  Tibetan  flutes,  gongs,  cymbals,  tambourines,  and  drums. 

In  Japan  small  portions  of  the  calcined  remains 
(often  not  larger  than  peas)  are  preserved  in  globular 
glass  shrines,  and  then  duly  honoured  and  worshipped. 

The  method  of  disposing  of  the  dead  bodies  of  the 


368  DOMESTIC   RITES   AND    USAGES. 

laity  and  of  the  common  people  is  generally  much  more 
simple.  In  most  Buddhist  countries  laymen  are  buried, 
and  the  priests  lead  the  processions  to  the  grave.  In 
Ceylon,  the  laity  are  certainly,  as  a  rule,  buried  and  not 
burnt. 

In  Burma  rich  laymen  are  also  generally  buried, 
and,  according  to  Mr.  Scott,  the  funeral  is  a  grand 
affiiir. 

The  body  is  swathed  in  new  white  cotton  cloth, 
leaving  the  face  uncovered.  A  piece  of  gold  or  silver 
is  placed  between  the  teeth  to  serve  as  ferry-money 
over  the  Buddhist  Styx — the  terrible  river  of  death 
which  all  deceased  persons  are  compelled  to  pass.  This 
river  is  clearly  the  counterpart  of  the  Yaitarani  of  the 
Hindus  (see  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  297). 

If  the  dead  man's  family  is  poor,  a  copper  coin  or 
even  a  betel  nut  will  suffice.  Next  the  monks  are  sent 
for,  their  immediate  presence  being  necessary  to  keep  off 
the  evil  spirits  who  always  swarm  near  a  corpse.  After 
an  interval  the  body  is  placed  in  a  coffin,  which  is  some- 
times gilded  and  placed  on  a  bier  under  a  canopy. 
When  the  right  day  arrives  for  the  funeral,  a  long  pro- 
cession is  formed,  with  a  number  of  priests  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  alms  bestowed,  and  a  crowd  of  rela- 
tions, friends,  and  neighbours.  Occasionally  those  wdio 
carry  the  bier  stop  and  go  through  a  sort  of  solemn 
dance,  while  mournful  tunes  are  played  by  the  musicians 
and  funeral  dirges  are  sung.  The  body  is  finally 
buried  in  a  cemetery  to  the  west  of  the  town  or  village. 
A  funeral  must  never  go  to  the  north  or  to  the  east. 
The  ceremony  concludes  by  alms  to  the  priests,  who  in 


EXPOSURE    OF   CORPSES    IX   TIBET.  369 

return  intone  the  commandments  and  other  portions  of 
the  Law  in  Pali.  After  the  funeral,  great  festivities  go 
on  in  the  family-abode  for  the  benefit  of  the  crowds 
who  come  to  offer  condolence.  Then  the  presence  of  the 
priests  is  again  needed,  and  has  to  be  paid  for  by  alms 
to  the  monastery,  or  the  evil  spirits,  who  are  sure  to 
hang  about,  cannot  be  got  rid  of.  In  some  parts  of 
Burma  the  cremation  of  rich  laymen  is  not  uncommon, 
and  the  ashes  are  either  deposited  in  Dagabas — that  is, 
in  small  Stupas  or  Pagodas  ^ — or  are  pounded  into  paste 
and  made  into  miniature  Stupas  (p.  506)  or  into  small 
images  of  the  Buddha  for  worship  at  the  domestic  altar. 

In  Tibet  and  Mongolia  the  corpses  of  the  laity, 
especially  of  the  poor,  are  often  exposed  in  the  fields, 
in  deserts,  or  on  mountain  tops,  or  rocks,  or  in  lonely 
ravines,  or  sometimes  in  open  places  enclosed  for  the 
purpose.  Occasionally  they  are  covered  with  a  thin 
layer  of  earth  or  loose  stones.  Usually  they  are  de- 
voured by  vultures,  dogs,  and  other  animals. 

It  seems  that  in  Lhassa  certain  dogs  are  kept  for 
that  purpose  ^.  A  class  of  professional  men  exist  there, 
whose  business  it  is  to  cut  up  dead  bodies,  and  throw 
the  flesh  piecemeal  to  dogs  and  vultures.  Even  the  bones 
are  sometimes  pounded,  and  the  dust,  being  mixed  with 
flour,  is  given  to  be  devoured.  The  strange  thing  is, 
that  this  kind  of  burial  is  thought  desirable,  and  even 
honourable.     To  be  eaten  up  by  sacred  dogs  after  death 


^  The  Dagabas  of  laymeu  have  do  umbrellas  at  the  top  (see  p.  505). 
This  privilege  is  only  accorded  to  the  monkhood  (Scott's  'Burman'). 
^  This  is  mentioned  by  Hue  as  well  as  by  Koeppen. 

Bb 


370  DOMESTIC   RITES   AND   USAGES. 

is  productive  of  great  merit,  and  leads  to  re-birth  in 
hio-her  forms.     Doss  are  the  mausoleums  of  Lhassa. 

According  to  M.  Hue,  a  common  funeral  ceremony 
among  the  Mongols  consists  in  carrying  the  corpse  to 
the  summit  of  a  mountain,  or  to  the  bottom  of  a  ravine. 
The  body  is  walled  up  in  a  sort  of  kiln  of  a  pyramidal 
form,  with  a  small  door  at  the  bottom,  and  an  oj^ening 
at  the  top  to  maintain  a  current  of  air,  and  allow  the 
smoke  to  escape.  During  the  combustion  the  Lamas 
recite  prayers.  When  the  corpse  is  consumed,  the  kiln 
is  demolished.  Then  the  bones  are  collected  and  carried 
to  the  Grand  Lilma,  who  reduces  them  to  a  powder, 
and,  after  adding  an  equal  quantity  of  wheaten  flour, 
kneads  the  whole  carefully,  and,  with  his  own  hands, 
fashions  a  number  of  cakes  of  various  sizes.  These 
are  afterwards  placed  in  a  pyramidal  Stupa,  which  has 
been  built  beforehand  in  some  auspicious  place. 

The  soil  of  the  famous  monastery  of  the  Five  Towers 
in  the  province  of  Shan  Si,  is  said  to  be  so  holy  that 
those  interred  there  are  sure  to  effect  a  good  transmi- 
gration. In  the  deserts  of  Tartary,  Mongols  are  fre- 
quently seen  carrying  on  their  shoulders  the  bones 
of  their  kindred,  and  journeying  to  the  Five  Towers — 
there  to  purchase,  almost  at  its  weight  in  gold,  a  little 
surface  of  ground  whereon  to  erect  a  small  Stupa. 
Some  of  them  undertake  a  toilsome  journey  of  a  whole 
year's  duration,  to  reach  this  holy  spot  (see  p.  435). 

Burial  in  rivers,  which  is  highly  prized  by  the 
Hindus,  is  not  in  favour  among  Buddhists.  Only  very 
poor  people  allow  their  dead  to  be  thrown  into  rivers, 
though  this  is  the  only  kind  of  Buddhist  burial  men- 


PRAYER   AND    PRAYER-FORMULARIES.  3  71 

tioned  by  Alberimi  (Sachau,  ii.  169).  Buddhism,  from 
the  first,  repudiated  the  Hindu  funeral  ceremonies 
called  Sraddhas,  which  are  still  a  great  incubus  on  the 
people.  The  poorest  man  in  India,  if  he  be  of  high 
caste,  cannot  perform  a  Sraddha  for  a  relation  for  a  less 
sum  than  forty  rupees,  given  in  fees  to  the  priests. 
Buddhism  did  good  service  in  delivering  the  people 
from  this  burden,  but  in  Northern  countries  it  esta- 
blished something  similar  in  the  Bardo  ceremony 
(p.  334)- 

Formularies  of  Prayer, 

With  regard  to  prayer-formularies,  there  is  in  modern 
times  a  good  deal  of  difference  between  Southern  and 
Northern  Buddhist  countries.  We  have  seen  that  the 
three-refuge  formulary  was  the  sole  prayer  of  early 
Buddhists.  Certain  orthodox  men  whom  I  met  in 
Ceylon,  maintained  to  me  that  this  is  the  only  legiti- 
mate form  of  prayer  that  ought  to  be  used  even  in  the 
present  day.  It  is  certainly  a  form  which  is  accepted 
and  employed  by  all  Buddhists  of  whatever  nationality. 

Tsong  Khapa,  it  is  said,  established  at  Lhassa  an 
annual  prayer-congregation  called  Monlam  Chenpo  (see 
p.  386).  But  the  most  common  prayer  used  in  Tibet 
is  a  mere  formulary,  the  constant  repetition  of  which 
is  one  of  the  most  amazing  instances  of  the  tyranny  of 
superstition  to  be  found  in  any  part  of  the  woiid. 

It  consists  of  the  six-syllabled  sentence,  Om  mani 
padme  Htim, '  Om  !  the  Jewel  in  the  Lotus !   Hum  ! ' 

This  prayer,  or  rather  mystical  sentence,  is  supposed 
B  b  2 


372  FOKMULARIES   OF   PRAYER. 

to  have  been  composed  by  Padma-pani  (Avalokitesvara), 
and  to  have  reference  to  his  own  manifestation  as  the 
Patron-Saint  of  Tibet  ^  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
Mani  or  'Jewel'  prayer,  and,  if  brevity  is  a  valuable 
quality,  its  excellence  is  undeniable,  since  it  consists 
of  merely  two  Sanskrit  words,  between  two  mystical, 
untranslatable  auspicious  ejaculations,  Om  and  Hum-. 

Doubtless  the  prayer  really  owes  its  origin  to  the 
close  connexion  which  sprang  up  between  Northern 
Buddhism  and  Saivism.  The  worshippers  of  Siva  have 
always  used  (compare  p.  240)  similar  mystical  sen- 
tences and  syllables  called  Dharanis,  to  which  a  kind 
of  miraculous  efficacy  is  attributed.  In  all  .probability 
an  occult  meaning  underlies  the  '  Jewel-lotus '  formula, 
and  my  own  belief  is  that  the  majority  of  those  who 
repeat  it  are  ignorantly  doing  homage  to  the  self- 
generative  power  supposed  to  inhere  in  the  universe 
— a  power  pointed  at  by  the  popular  Siinkhya  theory 
of  the  union  of  Prakriti  and  Purusha,  and  by  the  uni- 
versal worship  of  the  Linga  and  Yoni  throughout 
India '^  No  thoughtful  person  can  have  travelled  much 
in  India  without  being  impressed  with  this. 

^  He  "is  sometimes  represented  seated  ou  a  Lotus,  or  boi-n  from  a 
Lotus. 

^  Om  is  borrowed  from  the  Hindus.  It  is  their  most  sacred  sjdlable, 
symbolical  of  their  triad  of  gods,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  denoted 
by  the  three  mystical  letter  A,  U,  M  (see  my  '  Brahmanism,'  p.  402). 
When  imported  into  Buddhism  it  may  possibly  symbolize  the  ]>ud- 
dhist  triad.  Om  is  sometimes  translated  by  Hail  !  Hum,  as  a  particle 
of  solemn  assent,  is  sometimes  translated  by  Amen  !  I  prefer  to  treat 
both  Om  and  Hum  as  untranslatable  ejaculations. 

I  had  formed  this  opinion  long  before  I  saw  tlie  same  view  hinted 
at  in  one  of  Kocppen's  notes  (see  my  'Bruhmauism  and  Hinduism,' 


MANI-PADME    OR   JEWEL-LOTUS   FORMULARY.       373 

At  all  events,  whatever  be  its  origin  and  meaning, 
no  other  prayer  used  by  human  beings  in  any  quarter 
of  the  globe  is  repeated  so  often.  Every  Tibetan  be- 
lieves it  to  be  a  panacea  for  all  evil,  a  compendium  of 
all  knowledge,  a  treasury  of  all  wisdom,  a  summary  of 
all  religion.  But  if  you  ask  Northern  Buddhists  to 
give  you  the  reason  for  this  belief,  very  few  are  able 
to  give  an  intelligible  reply.  According  to  the  most 
learned  doctors  of  philosophy  who  are  to  be  found  in 
Tibetan  monasteries,  it  is  certainly  addressed  to  their 
patron  deity  Avalokitesvara,  and  the  real  secret  of  its 
efficacy  lies  in  the  fact,  that  each  one  of  its  six  syllables 
has  a  potent  influence  on  some  one  of  the  six  Gatis 
or  courses  of  being — that  is  to  say,  on  some  one 
of  the  six  kinds  of  transmigration  or  transformation 
through  which  every  living  individual  has  to  pass 
(see  p.  121)  ^ 

The  oftener,  therefore,  this  mystical  formula  is  re- 
peated the  shorter  will  be  an  individual's  course  (gati) 
through  some  of  these  six  forms  of  existence,  every  one 
of  Mdiich  involves  misery  or  evil.  Or  it  may  be  that 
by  repeating  it  he  will  be  able  to  escape  some  of  the 
six  existences  altogether. 

Strange  indeed  as  it  may  appear  to  us,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  shake  the  faith  of  a  Lamistic  Buddhist  in  the 

p.  33).  It  is  certainly  remarkable  that  the  name  Mani  is  applied 
to  the  male  organ,  and  the  female  is  compared  to  a  lotus-blossom 
in  the  Kama-sastras.  I  fully  believe  the  formula  to  have  a  phallic 
meaning,  because  Tibetan  Buddhism  is  undoubtedly  connected  witli 
Saivism. 

^  Some  think,  however,  that  the  six  syllables  owe  their  efficacy  to 
their  symbolizing  the  six  Paramitas  or  transcendent  virtues. 


374  FOKMULARTES    OF    PRAYER. 

absolutely  infallible  efficacy  of  his  six  favourite  mystic 
syllables.  He  repeats  them,  not  at  all  as  if  he  were 
praying  in  a  Christian  sense,  but  as  if  he  were  a  farmer 
intent  on  planting  the  very  best  seed  in  the  most  pro- 
ductive soil,  and  watering  it  incessantly  according  to 
the  most  scientific  principles  of  irrigation.  A  bountiful 
harvest  is  absolutely  certain  to  reward  his  efforts. 

It  need  not,  therefore,  surprise  us  if  these  six  sylla- 
bles are  murmured  morning,  noon,  and  night,  by  every 
man,  woman,  and  child,  wherever  the  Lamistic  Hier- 
archy has  extended.  And,  if  not  repeated  by  the 
voice,  an  incessant  stream  of  repetition — an  incessant 
scattering  of  the  six  mystic  seeds — is  kept  going  by 
the  hand. 

The  words  are  written  or  printed  on  roll  within  roll 
of  paper  and  inscribed  in  cylinders,  which,  when  made 
to  revolve  either  by  educated  monks  or  by  illiterate 
laymen,  have  the  same  efficacy  as  if  they  were  actually 
said  or  repeated.  The  revolutions  are  credited  as  so 
much  prayer-merit,  or,  to  speak  more  scientifically,  as 
so  much  fvayer-force,  accumulated  and  stored  up  for 
the  benefit  of  the  person  who  revolves  them. 

The  cylinder  is  generally  made  of  metal,  the  prayer 
being  engraved  on  the  outside,  as  well  as  written  on 
paper  and  inserted  inside.  It  is  held  in  the  right  hand 
and  whirled  round,  like  a  child's  toy,  by  means  of  a 
handle  in  a  pa.rticular  direction  (with  the  sun).  If 
made  to  revolve  the  other  way,  its  rotations  will  be  set 
down  to  the  debtor  rather  than  the  creditor  side  of  the 
owner's  account.  Here  is  a  drawing  of  one  of  several 
hand-cylinders     (commonly     called     prayer-wheels    or 


PRAYER-WHEELS    OR   PRAYER-CYLINDERS.         375 

prayer-mills;  Tibetan,  6hos-kor  or  Clios-kyi  or  Klior-lo), 
obtained  by  me  at  Darjiliiig : — 


Then,  again,  the  words  of  the  prayer  are  written  or 
printed  millions  and  millions  of  times  on  rolls  or  strips 
of  paper,  and  enclosed  in  much  larger  barrel-like  cyhn- 
ders,  which  are  set  up  in  temples,  chapels,  monasteries, 
corridors,  passages,  houses,  villages,  by  the  road  side, 
and  in  every  possible  corner,  for  the  convenience  of  the 
mass  of  the  people  who  are  too  ignorant  to  read,  and 
too  indolent  to  engage  in  continuous  oral  repetition  ^ 

It  sometimes  happens  that  quarrels  arise  from  rival 
claims  in  regard  to  the  use  of  such  prayer-cylinders. 
In  illustration  of  this  an  amusing  story  is  told  by  the 
French  missionaries  : — 

^  Dr.  Sclilagintweit  mentions  (p.  121)  that  when  Baron  Schilling 
visited  a  certain  convent  he  found  the  Lrimas  occupied  in  preparing 
100  million  copies  of  Ommani  padme  Hum  to  be  inserted  in  a  prayer- 
cylinder.  He  also  states  that  the  inscription  relating  to  the  founda- 
tion of  the  monastery  of  Hemis  in  Ladak  (sec  p.  433  of  these  Lectures) 
records  the  setting  up  of  300,000  prayer-cylinders  along  the  walls 
and  passages  of  the  monastery. 


376  FOKMULARIES    OF    PRAYER. 

One  day  when  they  happened  to  be  passing  a  pray- 
ing-machine, set  up  near  a  monastery,  they  saw  two 
Lamas  engaged  in  a  violent  quarrel ;  and,  as  it  ap- 
peared, all  on  account  of  their  zeal  for  their  prayers. 
The  fact  was  that  one  Lama  had  come,  and,  having 
set  the  barrel  in  motion  for  his  own  benefit,  was  re- 
tiring modestly  and  complacently  to  his  own  abode, 
when  happening  to  turn  his  head  to  enjoy  the  spectacle 
of  the  wheel's  pious  revolutions,  he  saw  the  other  Lama 
stop  it,  and  set  it  whirling  again  for  himself.  Indig- 
nant, of  course,  at  this  unwarrantable  interference  with 
his  own  devotions,  he  ran  back,  and  in  his  turn  put  a 
stop  to  his  rival's  piety,  and  both  of  them  continued 
this  kind  of  demonstration  for  some  time,  till  at  last 
losing  patience  they  proceeded  to  menaces,  and  then  to 
blows,  when  an  old  Lama  came  out  of  a  neighbouring 
cell,  and  brought  the  difficulty  to  a  peaceful  termi- 
nation by  himself  twirling  tlie  prayer-barrel  for  the 
benefit  of  both  parties. 

On  the  occasion  of  my  visiting  Darjiling  in  1884,  I 
was  desirous  of  judging  for  myself  of  the  method  of 
using  these  remarkable  instruments  of  religion.  I 
therefore,  soon  after  my  arrival,  walked  to  a  Buddhist 
temple  near  the  town.  There  I  found  several  large 
barrel-like  cylinders  set  up  close  together  in  a  row  at 
the  entrance,  so  that  no  one  might  jDass  in  without 
giving  them  at  least  one  twirl,  or  by  a  rapid  sweep  of 
his  hand  might  set  them  all  twirling  at  once.  Inside 
the  entrance-portico  a  shrivelled  and  exceptionally 
hideous  old  woman  was  seated  on  the  ground.  In  her 
left  hand  she  held  a   small  portable   prayer-cylinder. 


METHOD    OF    USING   PRAYER- WHEELS.  ^i^-]^ 

which  she  kept  in  perpetual  revolution.  In  her  right 
hand  was  a  cord  connected  with  a  huge  barrel-like 
cylinder,  which  with  some  exertion  she  made  to  rotate 
on  its  axis  by  help  of  a  crank,  while  she  kept  muttering 
Om  mani  idcimme  Hum  (so  she  pronounced  it)  with 
amazing  rapidity.  In  this  way  she  completed  at  least 
sixty  oral  repetitions  every  minute,  without  reckoning 
the  infinite  number  of  rotatory  repetitions  accomplished 
simultaneously  by  her  two  hands.  And  all  this  was 
done  with  an  appearance  of  apathy  and  mental  vacuity 
in  her  withered  face,  which  was  so  distressing  and 
melancholy  to  behold,  that  the  sj^ectacle  will  never  be 
effaced  from  my  memory.  In  truth  the  venerable  dame 
seemed  to  be  sublimely  unconscious  that  any  effort  of 
thought  or  concentration  of  either  mind  or  heart  was 
needed  to  make  prayer  of  any  value  at  all. 

And  the  men  of  Tibet  are  quite  as  much  slaves  to 
this  superstition  as  the  women.  A  friend  of  mine  when 
staying  at  Darjiling  had  some  conversation  on  serious 
subjects  with  an  apparently  sensible  native,  and  ob- 
served with  surprise  that  all  the  while  he  was  engaged 
in  talking  with  the  Buddhist,  the  latter  continued  dili- 
gently whirling  a  prayer-cylinder  with  great  velocity. 
My  friend,  being  unacquainted  with  Tibetan  customs, 
came  away  from  his  colloquy  under  the  impression  that 
Buddhists  regard  Christians  as  dangerous  lunatics  pos- 
sessed with  evil  spirits,  which  require  specially  active 
measures  in  the  way  of  exorcism.  It  did  not  occur 
to  him  that  the  Buddhist  was  merely  intent  on  re- 
deeming every  instant  of  time  for  the  purpose  of  storing 
up  meiit  by  prayer. 


378  FORMULARIES    OF    PRAYER. 

And  the  hold  which  tliis  extraordinaiy  superstition 
has  upon  the  population  is  still  more  forcibly  impressed 
on  the  traveller  who  penetrates  into  the  regions  beyond 
Darjiliug.  He  may  there  see  immense  prayer-cylinders 
set  u])  like  mills,  and  kej)t  in  incessant  revolution,  not 
by  the  will  or  hand  of  man,  but  by  the  blind,  uncon- 
scious force  of  wmd  and  water. 

It  is  even  said  that  great  mechanical  ingenuity  is 
displayed  by  the  monks  in  some  parts  of  Tibet,  their 
inventive  powers  being  stimulated  by  a  burning  desire 
to  economize  time  and  labour  in  the  production  of 
prayer-merit  by  machinery. 

An  intricate  arrangement  of  huge  wheels  and  other 
wheels  within  wheels,  like  the  works  of  a  clock,  is  con- 
nected with  rows  of  cylinders  and  made  to  revolve 
rapidly  by  means  of  heavy  weights.  An  infinite  number 
of  prayers  are  repeated  in  this  manner  by  a  single  monk, 
who  takes  a  minute  or  two  to  wind  up  the  complicated 
spiritual  machinery,  and  then  hastens  to  help  his 
brothers  in  industrial  occupations — the  whole  fraternity 
feeling  that  the  ingenious  contrivance  of  praying  by 
clock-work  enables  them  to  promote  the  common  weal 
by  making  the  most  of  both  worlds.  The  story  goes 
that,  in  times  of  special  need  and  emergency,  additional 
weights  are  attached  to  the  machinery,  and,  of  course, 
increased  cogency  given  to  the  rotatory  prayers.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  when  European  inventions  find 
tlieir  way  across  the  Himalayas,  steam-j^ower  may  not 
be  pressed  into  the  service  of  these  gross  superstitions. 

The  use  of  praver-wheels  of  various  kinds  is  also  com- 
mon in  Japan,  as  described  in  Sir  Edward  Eeed's  work. 


MANI-PADME  FOEMULARY  ON  WALLS,  ROCKS,  ETC.     379 

But  praying  by  machinery  is  not  all.  Beneficial  re- 
sults are  believed  to  accrue  throuofh  the  carvinc:  of  the 
all-powerful  six  syllables  on  every  conceivable  object. 

The  traveller,  as  he  walks  along,  sees  the  mystic 
words  impressed  on  the  stones  at  his  feet,  on  rocks, 
doors,  monuments,  and  trees.  Indeed,  rich  and  zealous 
Buddhists  maintain  at  their  own  expense,  companies  of 
Lamas  for  the  sole  object  of  propagating  the  Mani-padme 
formula.  These  strange  missionaries  may  occasionally 
be  encountered,  chisel  and  hammer  in  hand,  traversing 
field,  hill,  dale,  and  desert,  their  only  mission  being  to 
engrave  the  sacred  six  syllables  on  every  rock  in  their 
path  (Hue,  ii.  194). 

Absolutely  incalculable  is  the  grand  total  of  Mani- 
padmes  thus  placed  to  the  credit  of  the  world  of  living 
beings  during  the  short  space  of  twenty-four  hours. 
Yet,  at  the  end  of  the  New  Year's  festival  in  Tibet,  the 
chief  Lama  will  sometimes  pretend  to  proclaim  the 
exact  sum  of  mystic  syllables  supposed  to  have  been 
repeated  during  its  continuance,  amounting  perhaps  to 
billions  upon  billions,  for  the  consolation  of  all  those 
faithful  Buddhists  who,  oppressed  by  the  evils  of  life, 
are  seekingf  for  some  antidote. 

But  the  'jewel-lotus 'is  not  the  only  antidote.  There 
are  other  short  prayer-formularies,  such  as  Om  Vajra- 
pani-Hum  (addressed  to  the  Bodhi-sattva.  Vajra-|)rini, 
p.  201),  and  other  still  more  mystical  ejaculations  (such 
as  Om  ah  Hum) ;  and  magical  sentences,  called  DharanI, 
and  profoundly  significant  monosyllables,  such  as  Kam, 
Phat,  Hrim,  Hrim,  Rim,  Rim,  Hrls. 

And  here  in  connexion  with  the  ubiquity  of  prayer- 


380  FOEMULAEIES   OF    PKAYEK. 

formularies,  we  must  not  omit  to  notice  the  Fraying- 
icalls,  that  is,  the  long  stone  walls  or  banks  called  (from 
the  'jewel-lotus'  prayer  inscribed  upon  them)  Mani\ 
or  in  the  provincial  dialect  Man  Dang  (variously  Man- 
dong,  Mendong). 

These  remarkable  stone-structures,  peculiar  to  La- 
mism,  are  erected  by  the  side  of  high-roads,  and  in 
frequented  thoroughfares,  with  the  simple  object  of 
aiding  in  the  accumulation  of  prayer-merit.  Some  are 
only  a  few  feet  long,  six  feet  high,  and  from  six  to 
twelve  feet  broad ;  others  have  been  met  with  nearly 
1000  yards  long,  with  pyramidal  Stupas-  or  Caityas 
(in  Tibetan  Chortens)  at  each  end.  Inserted  in  these 
walls  are  slabs  on  which  the  six-syllabled,  and  other 
prayer-formulas,  and  sometimes  images  of  saints,  are 
carved  and  dedicated  as  votive  offerings.  Passing 
travellers  acquire  merit  by  keeping  them  on  their  left 
side  ^,  so  that  they  may  follow  the  letters  of  the  inscrip- 
tion without  necessarily  repeating  the  words  ^. 

In  the  same  connexion  we  may  advert  to  Praying- 
flags  and  Praying-staffs.  And  I  may  mention  that,  while 
staying  at  Darjiling,  I  visited  a  village  to  which  a  monas- 
tery is  attached,  and,  on  approaching  the  spot,  was 
surprised  to  see  the  whole  neighbourhood  studded  with 
poles  from  which  long  flags  were  flying.     On  the  tops 

'  The  Mani-2mdme  prayer  is  itself  for  shortness  often  called  Mani. 

^  Stupas  and  Caityas  are  explained  at  p.  504. 

^  So  says  Schlagintweit,  but  he  adds  that  in  some  places  passers 
hy  keep  them  to  the  right.  Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das  also  mentions 
this. 

■*  According  to  Sir  Richard  Temple  (Journal,  p.  198)  travellers 
walk  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other. 


PRAYING-FLAGS    AND    PRAYING-STAFFS.  38 1 

of  the  poles  were  curious  ornaments  like  caps,  made  of 
coloured  cloth  with  flounces.  I  naturally  supposed 
that  I  had  arrived  on  a  gala  day,  and  that  at  least  a 
great  Lama  or  other  high  functionary  was  expected, 
perhaps  to  lay  the  first  stone  of  some  new  building 
connected  with  the  monastery.  On  inquiry,  however, 
I  ascertained  that  there  was  nothing  unusual  about  the 
appearance  of  the  village,  which  was  merely  praying, 
according  to  custom,  by  means  of  its  flag-staff's.  Every 
time  the  wind,  which  happened  to  be  blowing  fresh, 
extended  the  long  flags,  a  vast  number  of  prayers  were 
credited  to  the  inhabitants  who  were  themselves  all 
absent,  and  probably  hard  at  work  either  in  the  fields 
01'  at  Darjiling. 

I  managed  to  obtain  facsimiles  of  some  of  the  flags. 
On  them  are  inscribed  various  versions  of  the  inevit- 
able Mani-padme  formulary,  together  with  figures  of 
the  'flying-horse'  (Lungta,  strictly  rLun-rta,  'wind- 
horse  ')^  and  other  symbols,  such  as  those  of  the  Norbu 
gem-  and  of  the  Phurl^u — which  are  held  to  be  pecu- 
liarly efScacious  in  warding  off"  evil  spirits  or  neutral- 
izino'  the  diseases  inflicted  bv  them.  Indeed  in  most 
cases  these  flags  are  regarded  by  the  peasantry  as 
talismans  or  charms  to  protect  the  village  from  the 
malice  of  mischievous  ghosts  and  demons,  believed  to 
haunt  the  atmosphere  and  swarm  everywhere  around. 

Here  are  some  of  the  mystic  formularies  inscribed  on 

^  Sclilagintweit  (p.  253)  says  this  is  the  horse  which  constitutes 
one  of  the  seven  treasures  (see  p.  528  of  these  Lectures).  It  brings 
good  fortune  to  the  man  who  keeps  it  flying  on  a  flag. 

^  The  gem  called  Norbu  is  another  of  the  seven  treasures. 


382  FORMULARIES    OF    PRAYER. 

my  flags.  They  resemble  Saiva  Mantras  and  Dharanis 
— that  is,  mystical  words  or  sentences  used  as  spells: — 

Om  mani  padme  Hum  Hring,  Om  Vajra-pani  Hum, 
Om  a  Hum,  Om  Yag-isvari  Mum,  Sarva-siddhi-phala 
Hum,  Om  muni  muni  malia-muni,  Sakya-muni  svaha, 
Om  vajra-sattva  Hum,  Hulu  hulu,  Eulu  rulu,  Hiun 
Phat,  etc.     (Compare  my  '  Brahmanism,'  etc.  p.  197). 

One  flag  in  my  possession  has  representations  of  four 
animals  at  the  four  corners,  viz,  a  Tiger,  Lion,  Eagle,  and 
Dragon  ^ — supposed  to  act  as  guards  against  evil  spirits. 
It  also  has  an  inscription  in  Tibetan  which  was  trans- 
lated for  me  by  Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das,  thus  : — 

'  Reverence  be  to  the  Buddlias  and  Bodhi-sattvas !  Thus"  hath  it 
been  heard  by  me — once  on  a  time  when  the  adorable  Sakya-Buddha 
was  seated  on  a  marble  throne  amid  the  gods  of  the  Trayastrinsa 
heaven,  Indra,  thePrince  of  Gods,  arrived  there,  after  being  completely 
defeated  by  the  demons  (Asuras).  Seeing  the  Buddha,  and  throwing 
himself  at  his  feet,  he  thus  reverentially  addressed  him  : — "  Oh,  my 
Loiti,  we  the  gods  of  the  Trayastrinsa  (heaven)  have  suffered  a  com- 
plete defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  demons ;  instruct  us,  what  are  we  to 
do  1  how  are  we  to  triumph  over  our  enemies  1 "  To  this  the  adorable 
one  replied : — "  0  lord  of  gods,  take  this  mystical  formula  called 
Gyatshar  gyi  tsemoi  Punggyau,  which,  when  repeated,  will  make  you 
unconquerable.  I,  too,  in  my  former  existence  of  a  Bodhi-sattva 
found  it  efficacious  in  securing  victory."  ' 

It  is  of  course  a  work  of  great  merit  to  erect  prayer- 
flags.  They  form  a  conspicuous  feature  in  every  land- 
scape throughout  Tibet,  fluttering  on  hills  and  in  valleys, 
by  the  roadside,  and  on  the  river  bank,  on  walls  and  on 
the  tops  of  houses,   in  streets,   squares,  and  gardens. 

^  Dr.  Schlagintweit  says  that  a  Dhfirani  to  the  following  effect  is 
often  written  on  the  flag  :  '  Tiger,  Lion,  Eagle,  and  Dragon,  may 
they  co-operate  Sarva-du-du-hom  !     ('  Tibetan  Buddhism,'  p.  255). 


ROSARIES.  -8 


3'-' J 


Then,  again,  the  duty  of  a  constant  repetition  of 
prayer- formulae  and  mystical  sentences  has  led  Northern 
Buddhists  to  employ  Bosaries,  which  were  used  both  by 
Hindus  and  Buddhists  long  before  they  came  into  vogue 
in  Europe.  Without  these  necessary  aids  to  devotion 
the  long  rounds  of  repetition  could  not  be  accurately 
completed.  In  Northern  Buddhist  countries  rosaries 
ought  to  consist  of  io8  beads,  which  in  Tibet  are  said 
to  represent  the  io8  ^  volumes  of  the  Kanjur.  The 
same  number  of  beads  is  used  by  the  worshippers  of 
Vishnu,  who  use  the  rosary  to  aid  them  in  repeating 
any  one  of  the  names  of  Vishnu  800  times,  the  eight 
additional  beads  marking  each  century  of  repetitions. 

The  commonest  Buddhist  rosaries  are  made  of 
wood,  or  pebbles,  or  berries,  or  bone  ^ ;  the  more  costly, 
of  turquoise,  coral,  amber,  or  silver,  or  even  of  j^earls 
and  gems.  If  a  rosary  made  of  the  bones  of  some  holy 
Lama  can  be  procured,  it  is  of  course  prized  above  all 
others.  Sometimes  a  Dorje  is  appended.  Northern 
Buddhist  worshippers  hold  their  rosaries  (like  Iloman 
Catholics)  in  the  right  hand,  and  move  on  the  beads 
with  the  left,  and  they  will  do  this  while  talking 
together  or  even  quarrelling.  In  China  and  Jaj^aii 
Buddhist  rosaries  are  often  arranged  in  two  rings. 
They  sometimes  consist  of  enormous  beads  with  relics 
in  the  central  bead. 

Be  it  observed,  however,  that  the  prayer-formularies 

^  The  number  108  seems  sacred,  as  the  sole  of  Buddha's  foot  is 
said  to  have  that  number  of  marks  upon  it. 

^  Common  people  in  Buddhist  countries  are  satisfied  with  30  or 
40  beads. 


384  FORMULARIES    OF   PRAYER. 

of  Buddhists  are  not  always  a  mere  unintelligible  string 
of  words  and  syllables,  muttered,  iterated,  and  reiterated 
wit!  I  tlie  aid  of  rosaries.  Their  prayers  sometimes  con- 
tain lofty  sentiments.  For  instance,  the  two  vagabond 
mendicant  monks  seen  by  me  at  Darjiling  (described  at 
p.  267)  went  about  chanting  the  following  : — 

Eevei-ence  to  all  the  uoble  Fatlier-Lamas  !  I  address  this  to  the 
feet  of  Duaiig  our  patron  saint.  I,  Milaraspa  ^,  sing  it.  If  the  soul  be 
white  (enlightened),  it  must  be  white  inside  and  outside.  I  am  born 
in  consequence  of  the  works  of  this  world.  My  earthly  father  is  a 
sower  of  the  seed  of  sin.  My  mother  is  the  soil  which  receives  the 
seed  of  sin.  The  child  is  myself  tied  to  the  father  by  the  cord  of  sin. 
When  you  think  of  your  earthly  father,  think  also  of  your  Lama 
(spiritual  father).  Your  earthly  father  is  the  source  of  your  sin. 
Your  Lama  frees  you  from  sin  ^. 

But  this  song,  which  w^as  repeated  over  and  over 
again,  invariably  concluded  by  a  repetition  of  the  in- 
evitable six-syllabled  formula.  This  they  repeated 
very  rapidly,  pronouncing  it  as  usual,  '  Om  mani-pamme 
Hum,'  and  addino-  the  mvstical  svllable  HrTs.  Their 
chanting  was  accompanied  by  an  incessant  agitation  of 
their  Damaru  or  sacred  drum,  wliich  I  was  able  to  pur- 
chase. It  is  shaped  like  two  hemispheres,  joined  on  their 
convex  sides,  and  is  encircled  by  sacred  shells.  It  is 
sounded  by  means  of  buttons  attached  to  two  pendulous 
strips  of  leather.  The  sound  made  by  these  drums  is 
out  of  all  proportion  to  their  size.  It  may  be  heard  at 
a  great  distance,  and  is  thought  to  be  highly  efficacious 
in  frightening  away  evil  spirits,  who  dislike  loud  noises 

^  This  is  a  great  Tibetan  snint,  author  of  a  hundred  thousand  songs. 
^  Translated  for    me   by   Mr.  Sarat  Chandra    Das,   who  was    my 
companion  during  part  of  my  sojourn  at  Darjiling. 


DAILY   CHANTING   OF   PRAYERS. 


3^5 


of  all  kinds.     Here  is  an  exact  representation  of  tlie 
sacred  drum  now  in  my  possession  : — 


Again,  Dr.  Eitel  (Lectures,  iii.)  mentions  a  manual  of 
daily  prayer  used  by  Northern  Buddhists,  which  shows 
that  striking  words  are  sometimes  chanted,  though  they 
may  be  in  Sanskrit,  and  therefore  unintelligible  to  those 
who  repeat  them.     For  instance,  the  following  : — 

'  May  all  the  Buddhas  abide  in  me,  instruct  and  en- 
lighten me  with  knowledge  and  perfection,  free  me, 
deliver  me,  cleanse  me,  purify  me  ;  and  may  the  wliole 
universe  be  set  free  (Sarva-tathagata  mam  samavasantu 
buddhya  siddhya  bodhaya  vibodhaya  mocaya  vimocaya 
sodhaya  visodhaya  samantam  mo6aya) ! ' 

c  0 


386  FORMULAEIES    OF    PRAYER. 

Before,  therefore,  concluding  this  Lecture  we  must 
acknowledge,  in  fairness  to  the  inhabitants  of  Tibet, 
that  much  of  the  spirit  of  religion  may  be  mingled  with 
their  superstitions.  The  words  of  their  prayers  are  not 
merely  repeated  by  machinery,  written  on  paper,  and 
inscribed  on  rocks  and  stones.  The  voices  of  men  and 
women,  if  not  their  thoughts,  often  go  heartily  with 
uttered  prayers.  The  note  of  prayer  is  raised  at  all 
times  and  seasons — in  the  morning,  mid-day,  and  evening, 
in  private  and  in  public,  at  home  or  abroad,  in  the  midst 
of  labour  and  idleness,  in  lying  down  and  rising  up,  in 
moving  about  and  keeping  still,  on  the  march  and  on 
the  battle-field,  on  mournful  occasions,  and  in  the  midst 
of  joy  and  laughter.  Nor  is  any  one  ashamed  of  praying 
aloud  or  praying  together  in  the  open  streets  and  squares 
of  crowded  towns. 

'  There  exists,'  says  the  French  Missionary  (ii.  1 94), 
'  a  very  touching  custom  at  Lhassa.  In  the  evening, 
just  as  the  day  is  verging  on  its  decline,  all  the  Tibetans 
stop  business  and  meet  together,  men,  women,  and 
children,  according  to  their  sex  and  age,  in  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  the  town  and  in  the  public  squares.  As 
soon  as  groups  are  formed,  every  one  kneels  down,  and 
they  begin  slowly  and  in  undertones  to  chant  prayers. 

'  The  religious  concerts  produced  by  these  numerous 
assemblages  create  throughout  the  town  a  solemn  har- 
mony, which  operates  forcibly  on  the  soul.  The  first  time 
we  witnessed  this  spectacle,  we  could  not  help  drawing 
a  painful  comparison  between  this  pagan  town,  where  all 
prayed  together,  and  the  cities  of  Europe,  where  people 
would  blush  to  make  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  public' 


LECTUEE    XIV. 

Sacred  Places. 

It  was  only  to  be  expected,  that  Buddliism,  closely 
connected  as  it  was  with  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism, 
and  yet  in  some  respects  opposed  to  those  systems, 
should  have  certain  sacred  places  and  hallowed  regions, 
some  of  which  were  identical  with  those  of  Bnihmanism 
and  Hinduism,  and  some  peculiarly  its  own. 

In  the  Maha-parinibbana-sutta  (V.  16-22,  Ehvs 
Davids),  we  have  the  following  declaration  : — 

'  There  are  four  places  wliicli  the  believing  man  should  visit  as  a 
pilgrim  with  feelings  of  reverence  and  awe.  The  place  at  which  he 
can  say,  "Here  the  Tathagata  (one  of  the  names  of  Buddha,  see  p.  23) 
was  born."  The  place  at  which  he  can  say,  "  Here  the  Tathagata 
attained  to  perfect  insight  and  enlightenment."  The  place  at  which 
he  can  say,  "  Here  the  Law  was  tirst  preached  by  the  Tathagata." 
The  place  at  which  he  can  say,  "  Here  the  Tathagata  passed  finally 
away  in  that  utter  passing  away  which  leaves  nothing  whatever 
behind"  (see  p.  142,  note,  and  p.  477). 

*  And  they  who  die,  Avhile  with  believing  heart  they  journey  on 
such  pilgrimages,  shall  be  reborn,  in  the  happy  realms  of  heaven.' 

The  Chinese  traveller,  Fa-hien,  names  the  same  four 
sacred  places  (Chap,  xxxi.),  and  says  that  the  situation 
of  the  four  great  Stupas  (see  p.  504)  has  been  fixed, 
namely,  (i)  where  the  Buddlia  was  born,  (2)  where  he 
attained  wisdom,  (3)  where  he  began  to  turn  the  wheel 
of  his  Law,  (4)  where  he  attained  Pari-nirvana  (p.  142). 
Compare  engraving  of  sculpture  opposite  p.  477. 

c  c  2 


388  SACRED   PLACES. 

Elsewhere  Fa-Lien  mentions  two  other  sacred  spots — 
the  place  where  the  Buddha  discomfited  the  advocates 
of  erroneous  doctrines  ^  and  the  place  where  he  de- 
scended after  ascending  to  the  Trayastrinsa  heaven 
(see  p.  414  of  this  volume),  to  preach  the  Law  to  his 
motlier  (Legge's  Fa-hien,  68). 

These  places  are  all  situated  within  the  area  of  the 
sacred  land  of  Buddhism  (see  map  opposite  p.  21); — 
that  is  to  say,  the  land  which  was  the  scene  of  the 
Buddha's  itineration  for  forty-five  years — a  region  about 
300  miles  long,  by  nearly  200  broad,  lying  in  Gangetic 
India,  within  the  modern  provinces  of  Oudh  and  Behar 
(Bihar  for  Vihara),  or  the  ancient  kingdoms  of  Kosala 
and  Magadha,  and  having  Sravasti  and  Buddha-Gaya 
for  its  limit  towards  the  north  and  south  respectively. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  note  a  few  particulars  in 
regard  to  these  and  other  sacred  spots  scattered  through- 
out this  region,  in  the  following  order  : — Kapila- 
vastu,  Buddlia-Gava,  Sarnath  near  Benares,  Kaja-griha, 
Sravasti  (often  written  Sravasti),  Vaisali,  Kausambi, 
Nalanda,  Sahkasya,  Saketa  (Ajudhya),  Kanya-kubja 
(Kanauj),  Patali-putra  (Patna),  Kesariya,  Kusi-nagara. 
The  map  opposite  p.  2 1  will  make  these  clear. 

To  begin  with  the  Buddha's  birth-place  (see  p.  21). 

Kapila-vastu. 

Kapila-vastu  (in  Pfdi,  Kapila-vatthu)  was  long  searched 
for  by  archaeologists  in  vain,  but  is  now  identified  by 

^  Iliouen  Tlisannr  says  that  this  phice  is  near  Prayaga  (the  modern 
Allahabad),  and  that  Asoka  built  a  Stupa  there.  (Beal,  i.  231.) 


KAPILA-VASTU,   THE    BUDDHA's   BIRTH-PLACE.        389 

General  Sir  A.  Cunningliam  and  Mr.  Carlleyle  with 
Bbuila,  a  village  surrounded  by  buried  brickwork  in  the 
Basti  district  under  the  Nepal  mountains,  about  twenty- 
five  miles  north-east  from  Faizabad,  twelve  north-west 
from  Basti,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  north  of  Be- 
nares. Both  Fa-hien  (Legge,  67)  and  Hiouen  Thsang 
describe  the  neighbouring  Lumbini  (Lavani)  garden, 
where  the  Buddha  was  born  from  the  right  side  of  his 
mother  (see  p.  23,  and  engraving  opposite  p.  477).  They 
also  mention  the  Arrow-fountain  where  Gautama  con- 
tended with  others  of  his  tribe  in  a  shooting-match.  The 
legend  is  (p.  24)  that  he  gained  the  victory  by  shooting 
an  arrow  which  passed  through  the  target,  buried  itself 
in  the  ground,  and  caused  a  clear  spring  of  water  to  flow 
forth  (Legge,  65-67  ;  Beal,  ii.  2^,  24).  This  name  Sara- 
Kupa,  '  arrow-fountain,' has  now  been  corrupted  into  Sar- 
Kuia  (or  Sar-Kuhiya),  and  the  spot  has  been  identified 
(Cunningham's  '  Keports  of  Survey,'  xii.  188). 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  so  sacred  a  place 
as  Kapila-vastu — the  birth-place  of  Buddha  and  the 
scene  of  his  education  and  youthful  exploits — would 
have  been  a  favourite  place  of  pilgrimage  for  Bud- 
dhists through  all  time ;  but  we  learn  from  the  two 
Chinese  travellers,  that  even  in  their  day  (from  the 
fourth  to  the  seventh  century)  the  whole  neighbourhood 
was  a  desert  and  the  town  in  ruins  (Beal,  i.  50  ;  ii.  14). 
The  reason  probably  is  that  Hinduism  gained  the  ascend- 
ancy over  Buddhism  in  certain  localities,  and  that  when 
this  happened  the  Brahmans  took  pains  to  obliterate  all 
traces  of  the  rival  creed.  In  later  times  Muhammadan 
invasions  contributed  to  the  same  result. 


390  SACRED   PLACES. 

BucWia-Gayd. 

This  was  the  place  where  the  Buddha  obtained  per- 
fect knowledge  and  enlightenment  after  his  sexennial 
course  of  fasting  and  meditation  (see  p.  3 1  of  this  volume). 
It  is  situated  six  or  seven  miles  from  the  town  of  Gaya, 
and  about  sixty  miles  from  Patna  and  Bankipur.  It  is 
of  all  Buddhist  sacred  places  the  most  sacred,  and 
abounds  in  profoundly  interesting  memorials  of  early 
Buddhism. 

Of  course  it  was  only  to  be  expected  that  memorial 
structures  intended  to  mark  important  epochs  in  the 
life  of  the  extinct  Buddha,  and  calculated  to  foster  feel- 
ings of  reverence  in  the  minds  of  his  followers,  should 
have  been  erected  at  this  and  various  other  holy  spots 
of  ground  consecrated  by  the  presence  and  acts  of 
Gautama  on  great  occasions.  And  of  all  such  Buddhist 
monuments  the  ancient  pyramidal  temple  at  Buddha- 
Gay  a,  which  I  visited  in  1876  and  1884,  is  the  most 
striking  and  full  of  interest.  Probably  a  monument 
of  some  kind  was  erected  there  not  very  long  after  the 
Buddha's  death,  and  Hiouen  Thsang  (see  p.  399) 
mentions  the  temple  built  there  by  Asoka.  The 
temple  which  I  saw  on  the  occasion  of  my  first  visit 
was  probably  not  built  till  the  middle  of  the  second 
century,  but  was  erected  on  the  foundation  of  Asoka's 
temple,  the  ruins  of  which  are  traceable  under  the 
present  one\  The  materials  consist  of  bluish  bricks, 
plastered  with  lime.     Hiouen  Thsang  states  that  in  his 

^  General  Sir  A.  Cuimingham  puts  the  date  at  about  a.d.  150. 


ANCI1;M    iU-njMIIST    JLMVLK    at    Ull^IillACAlA,    AS    IX    Ai'i'EAKED    IN    l{>8o. 
Krectfd  about  tlie  middle  of  tlie  second  century  over  the  rums  of  Asoka's  temple,  at  the  spot 
where  Gautama  attained  Buddhahood. 

[To  face  paije  391. 


BUDDHA-GAYA.   PLACE  OF  BUDDHAHOOD.    39 1 

time  it  had  eleven  stories  and  an  altitude  of  about  165 
feet.  It  also  had  niches  in  each  story,  with  a  golden 
statue  of  Buddha  in  each  niche.  The  whole  was  crowned 
with  the  representation  of  an  Araalaka  fruit  (Emblic 
myrobalan)  in  gilt  copper  (Cunningham's  Eeport,  i.  5). 
The  Burmese  probably  restored  the  temple  between 
1035  a^cl  1078  A.D.  Though  falling  into  decay  in  1876, 
its  appearance  struck  me  as  exceedingly  imposing, — 
even  more  so  than  that  of  the  grand  pyramidal  towers, 
built  over  the  entrances  to  the  great  South  Indian 
temples  ^  The  annexed  engraving  of  this  ancient 
monument  as  it  appeared  in  1880,  before  its  restoration, 
is  from  a  photograph  by  Mr.  Beglar,  taken  on  the  spot, 
and  enlarged  by  Mr.  Austen. 

The  original  object  of  its  erection  seems  to  have  been 
simply  and  solely  to  serve  as  a  monument,  and  not  as 
a  Dagaba  or  receptacle  for  relics.  Very  soon,  however, 
monuments  of  this  kind  were  made  to  enshrine  images, 
and  were  used  as  temples  and  places  of  worshij).  On 
inquiry  I  found  that  the  ancient  image  or  images  of 
Buddha,  which  once  occupied  the  shrine  in  the  ancient 
Buddha-Gay  a  temple,  had  been  destroyed  or  carried 
off  at  different  times  ^,  and  that  another  stone  image, 
believed  to  have  been  carved  in  the  eighth  century,  had 
been  recently  substituted  for  it.     It  is  remarkable  that 

^  See  the  account  given  in  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  442. 

^  Many  images  and  sculptures  were  abstracted  by  the  Burmese,  but 
many  never  reached  Burma,  for  they  accidentally  fell  into  the  Ganges 
in  the  process  of  being  transported  there.  The  colossal  image  found 
outside  the  temple  is  now  in  the  Calcutta  Museum  (see  the  engraving 
opposite  to  p.  466). 


392  SACRED   PLACES. 

during  the  process  of  restoring  the  so-called  '  diamond 
throne/  on  which  the  statues  were  placed,  a  mass  of 
fragments  of  coral,  sapphire,  cornelian,  crystal,  ruby, 
pearl,  ivory,  and  gold,  but  no  diamond,  was  found  com- 
pacted or  cemented  together  in  front  of  it^ 

At  the  back  of  the  raised  terrace  which  surrounded 
the  ancient  temple  was  a  Pipal  or  sacred  fig-tree,  fabled 
to  be  the  very  tree  under  which  Gautama  sat  during 
his  course  of  profound  meditation  ending  in  Buddha- 
hood  (see  p.  31),  Its  vitality  was  on  the  wane,  for  its 
decaying  branches  drooped  over  the  parapet  as  if  they 
sought,  like  those  of  a  neighbouring  Banyan  tree,  to 
gain  new  life  by  rooting  themselves  in  the  ground 
beneath.  Some  Buddhist  pilgrims  happened,  at  the 
moment  of  my  visit,  to  be  worshipping  at  the  temple, 
deputed  ly  the  King  of  Burma  to  present  offerings. 
I  observed  that  they  had  brought  packets  of  gold-leaf, 
and  had  gilded  the  stone  steps  that  surrounded  the  tree. 
Having  performed  this  act  of  homage,  they  sat  near 
muttering  their  prayer-formularies.  No  doubt  they 
believed  it  to  be  the  very  Bodhi-tree  of  Gautama's 
time,  the  stem  of  which  had  been  miraculously  pre- 
served, though,  had  it  been  really  so,  the  stem  would 
have  been  about  twenty-three  centuries  old.  Consider- 
ing the  well-known  properties  of  the  Pipal  tree,  it  is 
possible  that  the  worshippers  were,  after  all,  paying 
honour  to  the  descendant  of  the  original  tree,  the 
fact,  no  doubt,  being  that  as  each  tree  began  to 
decay  a  new  one  was  produced,  by  the  dropping  of 
seeds  into  the  old  roots  and  the  springing  up  of  fresh 

^  Mr.  Beglar  gave  me  specimens  of  the  fragments,  which  I  have  still. 


ANCIKNT    HIJ)I)11ISL'    TI'Mri.i:    AT    Jil  I)  Mil  A-C  A  YA,    AS    UKSTORED    IX    IS84. 

[To  face  imgc  393 


ANCIENT  TEMPLE   AT   BUDDHA-GAYA.  393 

scions.  Probably  most  of  the  sacred  trees  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Buddhist  temples  throughout  India, 
Ceylon,  and  Burma  were  originally  raised  from  seeds 
brought  from  the  ancient  Buddha- Gaya  tree. 

It  is  a  received  tradition  that  a  shoot  from  this  tree 
was  taken  by  the  Missionary  Mahendra,  son  of  Asoka, 
in  the  third  century  B.C.  to  Ceylon,  and  planted  at 
Anuradha-pura,  where  its  descendant  still  flourishes. 

When  I  again  visited  Buddha-Gaya  in  1884,  I  found 
that  the  old  pyramidal  temple  had  been  restored  ac- 
cording (as  is  conjectured)  to  Hiouen  Thsang's  descrip- 
tion of  the  Vihilra  of  his  day. 

It  is  said  that  the  late  Burmese  government,  not 
very  long  ago,  spent  about  thirty  thousand  rupees 
in  building  a  wall  round  the  temple  and  making 
excavations  with  a  view  to  its  restoration.  Then  our 
government,  about  1881  or  1882,  undertook  the  work, 
and  I  believe  at  least  a  lakh  of  rupees  has  been  spent  in 
completing  it.  I  give  a  representation  of  the  restored 
temple  (as  it  appeared  in  1884),  from  a  photograph  taken 
by  Mr.  Beglar,  and  enlarged  by  Mr.  Austen.  Its  present 
height  is  176  feet,  as  it  has  several  tiers  of  the  usual  um- 
brella-like ornament,  tapering  to  a  point  at  the  summit'. 

The  reconstruction  of  the  temple  led  of  course  to 
the  removal  of  the  sacred  Bodhi-tree,  but  an  efPort  was 
made  to  preserve  the  tree  by  transplanting  it  to  a 
neighbouring  garden.  No  sooner  was  this  done  than 
parties  of  pilgrims  from  Burma  and  Ceylon,  in  their 
pious  desire  to  maintain  the  vitality  of  the  venerated 
tree,  covered  the  stem  with  gold-leaf,  and,  bringing 
^  The  umbrella  is  symbolical  of  supremacy.      See  p.  523. 


394  SACRED    PLACES. 

Eau  de  Cologne  and  other  scents,  poured  them 
over  the  roots,  at  the  same  time  manuring  them  with 
the  contents  of  boxes  of  sardines  steeped  in  oil,  choice 
biscuits,  and  other  delicacies.  Of  course,  the  result  was 
the  speedy  destruction  of  the  tree,  root  and  branch.  To 
compensate  for  its  loss,  a  new  Pipal  tree  was  planted 
behind  the  restored  temple  by  Sir  A.  Cunningham  in 
1885.  Another  near  the  temple  appeared  to  be  in  a 
flourishing  condition  in  1884,  and  I  observed  that  both 
Hindu  and  Buddhist  pilgrims  met  together  there  as 
worshippers  of  the  same  sacred  object. 

The  idol-shrine,  under  the  principal  tower  of  the  re- 
stored temple,  consists  of  a  small  vaulted  stone-chamber 
lighted  only  by  the  door.  My  first  act,  on  arriving  at 
Buddha-Gaya  in  1884,  was  to  descend  to  this  interesting 
spot.  At  the  further  end  is  the  principal  statue  of 
Buddha,  seated,  in  the  'witness-attitude'  (see  p.  480) — 
on  an  altar-like  throne  having  five  pilasters,  and  supposed 
to  represent  the  original  Bodhi-manda.  The  pedestal  of 
the  statue  is  ornamented  with  diamond-shaped  carvings, 
and  sculptures  of  two  elephants  and  two  lions  ^ 

Inside  the  shrine,  at  the  moment  of  my  visit,  were 
five  Burmese  pilgrims  from  Mandelay.  They  were  ap- 
parently monks,  as  all  were  habited  in  yellow  dresses. 
Each  man  bowed  down  before  the  image,  with  hands 
joined  in  reverence,  occasionally  touching  the  ground 
witli  his  forehead,  and  going  through  a  course  of  prayer- 
repetition  by  help  of  a  rosary.  After  worshipping  for 
some  time,  they  deposited  a  quantity  of  offerings,  of  a 

^  The  lion  is  often  associated  with  Buddha,  who  is  called  Sakya- 
sinha  (see  p.  23),  and  whose  throne  is  therefore  called  a  Sinhasan. 


TEMPLE    AT   BUDDHA-GAYA    RESTORED.  395 

somewhat  miscellaneous  description,  in  front  of  the 
image.  I  noticed  among  other  things,  rice,  fruit,  vege- 
tables, flowers  of  the  Bel-tree,  tin  boxes  filled  with 
sardines,  Huntley  and  Palmer's  biscuits,  bottles  of  the 
genuine  Maria  Farina's  Eau  de  Cologne  for  watering 
the  sacred-trees,  and  a  large  number  of  packets  of 
gold-leaf.  I  left  the  shrine  for  two  or  three  hours,  and 
on  returning  found  that  the  pilgrims  had  crowned  their 
act  of  worship  by  gilding  the  image  with  the  contents 
of  these  packets,  reserving  a  supply  for  covering  the 
other  images  in  the  vicinity  of  the  temple.  The  cost 
of  the  whole  process  must  have  been  considerable. 

At  the  back  of  the  great  Buddha-Gaya,  temple,  I 
found  a  stone  tablet  for  offerings,  recently  brought  and 
fixed  horizontally  in  the  ground  by  another  pilgrim  who 
was  from  Colombo  in  Ceylon.  It  bore  an  inscription  in- 
dicating that  the  slab  had  been  placed  there  as  a  votive 
offering  by  a  person  calling  himself  Guna-ratna  Muddali 
Kaja  of  Kolamba-pur.  The  date  carved  on  it  (Buddha- 
vasse  2427)  shows  that  the  Buddhists  of  Ceylon  are  no 
believers  in  the  researches  of  modern  scholars.  They  still 
reckon  from  B.C.  543  for  the  supposed  Nirvana  of  Buddha. 

At  a  little  distance  in  front  of  the  great  Temple,  but 
on  the  right  side,  are  the  two  smaller  temples  called 
Tara-devi  and  Yagisvari.  In  the  latter  is  a  circular 
stone  with  nine  circles  of  compHcated  ornaments.  This 
is  called  a  Vajrasana,  from  the  thunderbolt  ornament  in 
the  second  circle,  but  it  is  not  the  true  Bodhi-manda. 

I  may  mention  here  that  a  portion  of  the  original 
Asoka  stone-railing,  with  an  inscription,  lotus-orna- 
ments and   carvings,   was  discovered   in  a  fair   state 


396  SACKED    PLACES. 

of  preservation  by  Sir  A.  Cunningham,  and  is  now 
to  be  seen  in  sit  it.  The  Buddha's  walking  place 
was  unearthed  by  Mr.  Beglar.  The  massive  new  brick 
railing  which  now  encloses  the  temple  has  been  well 
constructed  after  an  ancient  pattern,  and  ornamented 
with  numerous  carvings  representing  scenes  in  the 
lives  of  the  Buddha  (p.  iii).  The  paved  quadrangle 
sets  the  whole  off  to  great  advantage.  Indeed,  the 
present  appearance  of  the  square  and  the  sacred 
area  of  ground  adjoining — strewn  with  ruins  of  the 
Stvipas  erected  by  Asoka  and  others — and  according 
to  the  legend  by  the  gods  Indra  and  Brahma — is 
one  of  the  most  striking  sights  in  all  India,  and 
must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated. 

In  truth,  Buddha-Gaya  is  a  kind  of  Buddhist  Jeru- 
salem, abounding  in  associations  of  thrilling  interest, 
not  only  to  the  followers  of  Buddha,  but  to  all  who  see 
in  that  spot  the  central  focus  whence  radiated  a  system 
which  for  centuries  has  permeated  the  religious  thought 
of  the  most  populous  regions  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  in- 
fluenced the  creed  of  a  majority  of  the  human  race. 

Another  remarkable  characteristic  of  this  spot  is  that 
it  was  converted  into  a  kind  of  Buddhist  Necropolis, 
teeming  with  the  remains  of  generations  of  the  Buddha's 
adherents  contained  in  relic-receptacles  called  Stupas 
(PP-  503-506),  some  of  which  have  been  brought  to  light, 
while  countless  others  still  remain  to  be  unearthed. 

The  fact  was  that  immense  numbers  of  pilgrims  from 
all  parts  of  India  and  the  outlying  countries  once 
thronged  in  crowds  to  Buddha-Gaya,  and  nearly  every 
pilgrim    brought   with    him  a    Stupa    or    relic-shrine 


VOTIVE    STUPAS   AT   BUDDHA-GAYA.  397 

of  some  kind,  according  to  liis  means,  and  deposited  it 
as  a  votive  offering  in  this  hallowed  region,  eitlier  Math 
the  object  of  acquiring  religious  merit  for  himself,  or  of 
promoting  the  welfare  of  the  deceased  in  other  states  of 
being.  Often  it  was  inscribed  with  the  usual  Buddhist 
formula,  Ye  Dharmfi,  etc.  (see  p.  104),  and  sometimes 
bore  a  date  and  the  name  of  the  reiofuinof  kingf.  Gene- 
rally  the  votive  Stupa  contained  the  relics  of  deceased 
relatives — perhaps  the  ashes  of  a  father  or  mother,  or 
pieces  of  bone,  or  a  small  fragment  of  a  single  bone 
placed  in  an  earthen  vessel  or  casket  of  some  other 
material,  and  buried  in  the  interior  of  the  Stupa. 

Relics,  however,  were  not  always  forthcoming,  and 
so  the  votive  Stupas  were  frequently  mere  cenotaplis  or 
models  in  clay  or  stone  of  actual  Stiipas  erected  in 
other  places.     Often  they  were  beautifully  carved  and 
ornamented   with    rows    on    rows    of   images   of    the 
Buddha.     I  obtained  some  beautiful  specimens  for  the 
Indian    Institute   at    Oxford,    a    drawing    of    one    of 
which  wiU  be  given  (see  p.   505).      Layers  on  layers 
of  these   have  been   exhumed   during  the   process  of 
the  excavations.      They  are   of  every  variety  of  size, 
from  three  inches  to  several   feet   high,  and  of  every 
variety  of  material,  from  terra  cotta  and  clay  turned 
on  a   potter's  wheel   to   elaborately  sculptured   brick 
and    stone.      All    the    upper    layers    are    now    gone 
(those    made    of   clay   and    potteiy   having   naturally 
crumbled  to  pieces),  but  the  lowest  are  still  in  situ,  and 
furnish  specimens  of  all  ages  from  the  second  century 
to  the  tenth  or  twelfth.    I  noticed  hundreds  lying  about 
on  the  ground  in  1884. 


398  SACEED    PLACES. 

A  sacred  tank,  mentioned  by  Hiouen  Thsang,  is 
situated  three  or  four  hundred  yards  to  the  left  of  the 
Buddha-Gaya  temple.  I  found,  on  visiting  it,  that  this 
hallowed  pool  is  quite  as  much  venerated  by  Hindus  as 
by  pilgrims  from  Buddhist  countries. 

Indeed,  I  was  much  struck  by  the  evidence  which 
Buddha-Gaya  affords  of  the  inter-relationship  between 
Buddhism  and  Hinduism — especially  that  form  of  the 
latter  called  Vaishnavism.  For  instance,  on  one  side  of 
the  temple  I  noticed  the  tombs  of  the  Mahants,  or  Heads 
of  the  neighbouring  Hindu  monastery,  who  are  buried 
there  in  a  sitting  posture.  Near  these  again  are  shrines 
of  the  five  Pandava  heroes  (who  take  the  place  of  the 
five  Buddhas),  and  a  shrine  containing  the  supposed 
impression  of  the  two  feet  of  Vishnu.  The  upper 
portion  of  a  small  Buddhist  Stupa  has  been  sawn  off 
and  inverted^,  and  Vishnu's  footsteps  carved  on  the 
smooth  surface.  This  certainly  symbolizes  in  a  remark- 
able manner  the  merging  of  Buddhism  in  Vaishnavism, 
and  bears  out  Dr.  Sachau's  assertion  that  in  Alberuni's 
time  Vishnu-worship  was  dominant  in  India. 

Then,  again,  on  the  right  of  the  entrance  to  the  prin- 
cipal temple  is  a  raised  platform  of  earth,  on  which  are 
images  of  Vishnu,  Siva,  ParvatT,  and  Ganesa.  Here  I 
saw  a  Srfiddha  ceremony  ^,  in  the  act  of  being  performed 
by  some  Hindus — ^just  arrived  from  the  neighbouring 
town  of  Gaya.      They  were  repeating  their  mantras, 

^  This  will  be  evident  to  any  one  who  examines  it  attentively.  The 
soclvet-hole  of  the  umbrella-ornament  may  be  easily  detected. 

^  The  form  of  ritual  observed  was  like  that  I  witnessed  at  Gaya, 
and  described  in  my  '  Briihmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  310. 


OTHER    OBJECTS   AT   BUDDHA-GAYA.  399 

offering  their  Pindas,  and  putting  the  finishing  stroke 
to  the  funeral  services  (previously  performed  by  them 
at  the  Vishnu-pad  temple  at  Gayil),  under  the  shadow  of 
a  Pipal  tree,  held  as  sacred  by  them  as  by  Buddhists. 

To  give  an  exhaustive  account  of  tlie  objects  crowded 
together  at  this  fountain-head  of  Buddhism  would  be 
impossible.  The  following  abbreviated  version  of  the 
Rev.  S.  Beal's  translation  (ii.  115)  of  Hiouen  Thsang's 
description,  throws  great  light  on  the  state  of  Buddhism 
in  the  seventh  century: — 

Going  soutli-west  from  ISIouut  Pragbodhi,  we  came  to  the  Bodhi- 
tree.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  brick  wall,  and  is  about  500  paces  round. 
Within  the  wall  the  sacred  traces  touch  one  another  in  all  direc- 
tions. In  one  place  there  are  Stupas,  in  anotlier  place  Viharas.  In 
the  middle  of  the  enclosure  is  the  Bodhi-tree,  under  whicli  is  the 
diamond  throne  called  Bodhi-manda.  On  this  the  Buddha  sat  and 
attained  the  holy  path  of  perfect  wisdom.  When  the  earth  is  shaken, 
this  spot  alone  is  unmoved.  In  old  days,  when  Buddha  was  alive, 
the  Bodhi-tree — which  is  a  Pippala  or  sacred  fig-tree — was  several 
hundred  feet  high.  Although  it  has  often  been  injured  by  cutting, 
it  is  still  forty  or  fifty  feet  high.  The  leaves  never  wither  either  in 
Avinter  or  summer,  but  always  remain  shining  and  glistening,  except 
on  every  successive  Nirvana-day,  when  the  leaves  fade,  and  then  in 
a  moment  revive  as  before.  On  this  day  thousands  and  ten  thousands 
assemble  from  different  quarters,  and  bathe  the  roots  with  scented 
water  and  perfumed  milk.  King  Asoka,  before  he  was  converted, 
tried  to  destroy  the  tree  by  force,  and  after  him  king  Sasfiuka  tried 
again,  but  the  roots  sprang  up  as  full  of  life  as  ever. 

To  the  east  of  the  Bodhi-tree,  there  is  a  Vihara  about  160  or  170 
feet  high,  built  of  blue  tiles  covered  with  chunam ;  all  tlie  niches  in 
the  different  stories  holding  golden  figures.  The  four  sides  of  the 
building  are  covered  with  ornamental  work.  The  whole  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  gilded  copper  Amalaka  fruit.  To  tlie  right  and  left 
of  the  gate  are  niches ;  in  the  bft  is  a  figure  of  Avalokitesvara  Bodhi- 
sattva  and  in  the  right  a  figure  of  Maitreya.  On  the  site  of  the 
present  Vihara,  Asoka  at  first  built  a  small  Vihara.     Afterwards  a 


400  SACKED   PLACES. 

Brahman,  wlio  became  a  convert  to  Buddhism,  reconstructed  it  on  a 
larger  scale. 

To  the  north  of  the  Bodhi-tree  is  the  place  where  Buddha  walked 
up  and  down,  about  70  paces  or  so  long.  "When  he  had  obtained 
enliglitenment,  he  remained  perfectly  quiet  for  seven  days.  Then 
rising,  he  walked  up  and  down  during  seven  days  to  the  north  of 
the  tree.  Not  far  to  the  south  of  the  tree  is  a  Stupa  about  100  feet 
hio'h,  built  by  King  Asoka.  To  the  east  of  the  tree  is  the  place 
(marked  by  two  Stupas)  where  Mara  tempted  Gautama  to  become 
a  Universal  Monarch.  To  the  north-west  is  a  Vihara  in  which  is  an 
image  of  Kasyapa  Buddha,  noted  for  its  miraculous  qualities.  Occa- 
sionally it  emits  a  glorious  light,  and  the  old  records  say,  that  if 
a  man,  actuated  by  sincere  faith,  walks  round  it  seven  times,  he 
ol)taIus  the  power  of  knowing  the  place  and  condition  of  his  previous 
births.  Outside  the  south  gate  is  a  large  tank,  about  700  paces 
round,  the  water  of  which  is  clear  and  pure  as  a  mirror.  To  the 
east  of  this  is  the  lake  of  the  Snake-king,  Mucalinda.  On  the  west 
bank  is  a  small  Vibfira.  Formerly,  when  Tathagata  acquired  com- 
plete enlightenment,  he  sat  here  for  seven  days  in  perfect  composure, 
and  ecstatic  contemplation,  while  Mucaliuda  protected  him  with  his 
folds  wound  seven  times  round  his  body.  (Compare  the  frontis- 
piece.) 

By  the  side  of  the  river,  not  far  off,  is  the  place  where  Buddha 
received  the  rice-milk,  and  where  two  merchants  offered  some  wheat- 
flour  and  honey  from  their  travelling-store  {p.  40  of  this  volume). 

Near  this  a  Stupa  marks  the  spot  where  the  four  Kings  presented 
Buddha  with  four  golden  dishes.  The  Lord  declined  such  costly 
offerings.  Then  the  four  Kings,  casting  away  the  golden  vessels, 
offered  silver  ones ;  and  afterwards  vessels  of  crystal,  lapis-lazuli, 
cornelian,  amber,  ruby,  and  so  on  in  succession;  but  the  Lord  of 
tlie  World  would  accej)t  none  of  them.  Lastly,  the  four  Kings 
offered  stone  vessels. 

Near  this  spot  the  Buddha  worked  various  wonders  to  convert 
those  who  were  capable  of  conversion.  For  example,  it  was  here 
that  the  Buddha  overcame  the  fiery  snake-demon  (see  p.  46  of  this 
volume).  In  tlie  middle  of  the  night  the  Naga  vomited  foith  fire  and 
smoke,  and  the  cliamber  seemed  to  be  filled  with  fiery  flames ;  but 
the  ])uddlia  having  forced  the  fiery  dragon  into  his  alms-bowl,  came 
forth  next  day  holding  it  in  his  hand,  and  showed  it  to  the  un- 
believers. 


SARNATH   NEAR   BENARES.  4OI 

To  the  south  of  Mucalinda's  tank  is  a  Stupa,  which  indicates  tlie 
spot  where  Kasyapa,  having  embarked  in  a  boat  to  save  Buddha 
during  an  inundation,  saw  the  Lord  of  the  Workl  walking  on  the 
water  as  on  land. 

Sdrndth  near  Benares. 

The  city  of  Benares  (Banaras,  properly  Varanasi)  is  the 
most  sacred  place  of  Brahmanism^  and  is  certainly  the 
second  most  holy  place  of  Buddhism.  For  it  was  from 
this  centre  that  the  stream  of  Buddhist  teachins:  first 
flowed,  and  in  the  days  of  Asoka  and  of  his  immediate 
successors,  Buddhism  must  have  vied  with  Brahmanism 
in  the  number  of  its  shrines  and  sacred  objects  collected 
there. 

We  have  already  seen  that  memorial  Stupas  and 
temples,  not  intended  to  contain  relics,  were  reared  at 
various  holy  spots  of  ground,  consecrated  by  the  presence 
of  Gautama  on  special  occasions.  The  immense  ruined 
8tupa — once  a  tower-like  monument — at  a  spot  now 
called  Sarnath  (Saranga-nath  -),  three  or  four  miles  from 
the  modern  city  of  Benares,  is  a  memorial  of  this  kind. 
It  is  all  that  remains  of  the  celebrated  structure  erected 

■^  See  my  'Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  434. 

^  That  is,  '  the  lord  of  deer.'  Sarahga  is  a  kind  of  deer,  and  the 
Buddha  was  probably  called  so  because  he  is  fabled  to  have  wandered 
about  as  a  deer  in  this  very  jilace  in  one  of  his  former  births  (see 
p.  Ill  of  this  volume).  The  legend  is  that  he  was  born  eleven  times 
as  a  deer,  and  on  this  account  a  deer  is  one  of  the  sacred  symbols  of 
Buddhism.  We  learn  from  General  Sir  A.  Cunningham  (i.  105)  that 
the  name  Sarnath  properly  belongs  to  a  temple  dedicated  to  Siva  near 
the  Buddhist  monument,  and  the  ej^ithet  '  Lord  of  deer,'  is  equally 
applicable  to  the  god  Siva,  who  is  often  represented  in  the  act  of 
holding  up  a  deer  in  his  hand. 

Dd 


402  SACRED   PLACES. 

at  the  spot  in  the  Mriga-dava  or  deer-park,  once  called 
Isi-patana  (for  Sanskrit  Rishi-patana),  where  Gautama 
first  turned  the  wheel  of  the  Law  (Dharma-cakra) — that 
is,  where  he  preached  his  first  sermon  (p.  42).  It  was 
to  this  place  that  Buddhist  pilgrims  once  flocked,  and 
here  vast  numbers  of  votive  relic-shrines  and  Stiipas 
were  deposited,  as  at  Buddha-Gaya. 

I  visited  this  ancient  ruin,  in  company  with  the  late 
Mr.  Sherring,  in  1876,  and  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  his 
guidance  in  inspecting  it,  as  well  as  all  that  remains  of 
the  monastic  buildings  and  other  adjacent  ruins,  includ- 
ing the  octagonal  tower  called  Chaukandi,  about  half  a 
mile  distant.  In  his  book  on  Benares,  Mr.  Sherring  has 
followed  General  Sir  A.  Cunningham,  who  describes  the 
principal  monument — now  of  a  bee-hive  shape,  and 
called  Dhamek^ — as  93  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base, 
292  feet  in  circumference,  and  128  feet  above  the 
general  level  of  the  soil.  The  lower  part — to  a  height 
of  43  feet — is  built  of  stone,  and  aU  the  upper  part  of 
bricks.  There  are  eight  projecting  faces  with  empty 
niches,  which  once  held  statues. 

An  old  man  who  was  in  charge  of  the  ruins  when 
we  examined  them,  lighted  a  candle,  and  took  us  into 
the  horizontal  tunnel-like  gallery  which  the  General 
had  excavated  some  years  before,  in  the  hope  that  relics 
or  memorials  of  some  kind  might  be  found  buried  in 
the  interior.  A  shaft  or  well  had  been  previously  sunk 
from  the  summit,  and  at  the  depth  of  102  feet  a  slab 


The   name  Dhamek  may  possibly  be   a  corruption   of  Dhamma- 
cakka  (Dharma-cakra). 


STUPA   AT    SARNATH,    RAJA-GRIHA.  403 

was  discovered,  inscribed  with  the  well-known  Buddhist 
formula  'Ye  dharma/  etc.  (p.  104);  but  the  search  for 
relics  proved  unsuccessful.  The  Stiipa,  in  fact,  turned 
out  to  be  merely  memorial,  like  that  at  Buddha-Gaya. 

Probably  some  monumental  Stupa  existed  here  from 
the  earhest  times,  and  certainly  from  Asoka's  time.  The 
present  Stupa  was  seen  by  Hiouen  Thsang,  who  has  de- 
scribed it  in  rather  a  confused  manner  (Beal,  ii.  45). 
Hence  it  must  be  as  old  as  about  the  ninth  century. 
Fa-hien  saw  a  Stupa  of  some  kind  there  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury (p.  2>S7). 

About  fifty  yards  from  the  Stupa,  Sir  A.  Cunning- 
ham found  the  interesting  sculpture  given  at  p.  477. 

Bdja-griha. 

Eaja-griha  (Pali,  Eaja-gaha)  is  the  modern  Baj-gir. 
The  old  city  had  the  epithet  Giri-vraja,  *  surrounded  by 
hills ^.'  It  was  the  first  metropolis  or  mother-city  of 
Buddhism,  and  the  original  capital  of  the  powerful 
kingdom  of  Magadha,  when  under  the  rule  of  the  Kings 
Bimbi-sara  (p.  48)  and  his  son  Ajata-satru,  who  were 
contemporaries  and  friends  of  Gautama,  and  converted 


^  Fa-hien  says  tbat  the  old  city  was  girdled  by  five  hills.  These 
hills  are  now  called  Baibhar  (on  which  are  five  Jain  temples),  Yipula, 
Ratna,  Udaya,  and  Sona-giri,  A  long  account  of  the  place  will  be 
found  in  Cunningham's  'Ancient  Geography  of  India,' pp.  462-468, 
and  in  his  'Archaeological  Report,'  i.  20.  Bimbi-sara  seems  to  have 
built  the  town,  which  was  afterwards  improved  by  Ajata-satni,  and 
the  site  of  the  new  portion  being  not  quite  identical,  the  new  town 
was  called  'new  Eaja-griha.'  Legge's  'Fa-hien,'  p.  81.  There  are 
several  hot  springs  in  this  locality. 

D  d  2 


404  SACRED   PLACES. 

bv  him  to  Buddhism ^  The  sacred  character  of  the  j^lace 
is  attested  by  the  ruins  of  vast  numbers  of  Buddhist 
Stupas  and  Viharas  which  once  existed  here.  Unhap- 
pily Brahmans  and  Musahiians  have  used  the  materials 
for  their  temples,  tombs,  and  mosques. 

It  was  here  that  Gautama  first  studied  under  the 
Brahmans  Alara  and  Uddaka  (p.  29),  and  here  he  first  im- 
bibed the  philosophical  ideas  which  afterwards  coloured 
his  teaching.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  at 
a  later  period  of  his  career  he  was  fond  of  returning  to 
Eaja-griha  for  retirement  during  Vassa ;  his  two  favourite 
resorts-  being  the  Bambu  grove  (Velu-vana,  p.  48)  and 
the  hill  called  Vulture-peak  (Gridhra-kCita,  Legge's 
Fa-hien,  81,  83),  both  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city. 

It  was  here,  too,  that  several  interesting  incidents  in 
the  life  of  Buddha  occurred.  For  example,  it  was  here 
in  a  cavern  that  the  Buddha  often  meditated.  It  was 
here  that  he  often  preached  and  taught ;  and  it  was 
here,  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city,  that  the  god 
Sakra  (Indra)  once  appeared  to  Buddha,  bringing  a 
musician  from  heaven  to  entertain  him,  and  afterwards 
testing  his  knowledge  by  forty-two  questions.  These 
the  god  traced  with  his  finger  on  the  rock,  and  the  im- 
pression of  them,  according  to  Fa-hien,  was  to  be  seen 

^  Ajata-satru  seems  first  to  have  sided  with  Buddha's  enemy  Deva- 
datta. 

-  It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  any  place  or  house  in  which  the 
Buddha  resided  for  a  time  was  afterwards  called  Gandha-kutI  (probahly 
from  the  fragrance  of  the  perfumed  offerings  always  to  be  found  in 
it).  Hence  the  Bambu  grove  at  Raja-griha,  and  the  Jeta-vana  at 
SravastI  (p.  407),  were  both  Gandha-kutls. 


BAJA-GRIHA.  405 

there  in  his  time,  and  a  monastery  was  built  on  the  spot. 
With  reference  to  this  legend  we  may  note  that  the 
answers  to  the  forty-two  questions  are  supposed  to  be 
contained  in  a  celebrated  Tibetan  work  called  the 
'  Forty-two  points  on  which  the  Buddha  gave  instruc- 
tion ^ ',  the  importance  of  which  is  proved  by  its  being 
translated  into  several  languages. 

It  was  in  this  neighbourhood,  too,  that  Buddha's  two 
chief  disciples — Sariputra  and  Maudgalyayana  (Pali, 
Moggallana,  p.  47) — had  their  noted  meeting  with  Asva- 
jit  (Pali,  Assaji),  already  mentioned  (p.  104).  Here, 
also,  a  Jaina  ascetic  made  a  pit  of  fire  and  poisoned  the 
rice,  and  then  invited  Buddha  to  eat.  Lastly,  it  was 
here  that  many  of  Deva-datta's  plots  against  the 
Buddha's  life  (see  p.  52)  were  carried  on.  The  story  of 
these  is  so  interesting  that  I  abridge  it  from  the  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East  (vol.  xx.  p.  238): — 

Now  at  that  time  the  Venerable  One  was  seated  preaching  the 
Law  and  surrounded  by  a  great  multitude,  including  the  king  and 
his  retinue.  And  Deva-datta  rose  from  his  seat,  and  said,  '  The 
Venerable  One  is  now  aged,  he  has  accomplished  a  long  journey,  and 
his  term  of  life  is  nearly  run.  Let  the  Venerable  One  now  dwell 
at  ease  and  give  up  the  Saiigha  to  me,  I  will  be  its  leader.'  Then 
said  the  Buddha,  '  I  would  not  give  over  the  Saiigha,  even  to  Sari- 
putta  and  Moggallana ;  how  much  less  then  to  so  evil-living  a  person 
as  you.' 

Then  Deva-datta  thought :  '  The  Venerable  One  denies  me  before 
the  king,  and  calls  me  "  evil-living,"  and  exalts  Sariputta  and 
Moggallana.'  With  these  thoughts  in  his  mind  he  departed,  angry 
and  displeased,  and  went  to  Ajata-sattu  and  said,  '  Do  you,  prince, 

^  A  magnificent  edition  of  this  work  in  Tibetan,  ^longol,  Manchu, 
and  Chinese  came  into  the  possession  of  the  French  Missionaries 
(Hue,  ii.  74). 


406  SACRED    PLACES. 

kill  your  father,  and  become  Eaja ;  and  I  will  kill  the  Venerable  One 
and  become  the  Buddha.'  And  prince  Ajata-sattu,  taking  a  dagger, 
entered  his  royal  father's  chamber.  And  the  Eaja  Bimbi-sara  said, 
'  Why  do  you  want  to  kill  me,  0  prince  1  if  you  want  the  kingdom, 
let  it  be  thine.'  And  he  handed  it  over  to  Ajata-sattu.  Then  Deva- 
datta  said,  '  Give  orders,  O  king,  to  your  men,  that  I  may  deprive 
the  Samaua  Gotama  of  life.'  And  Ajata-sattu  did  so.  Then  sixteen 
men  were  sent  to  kill  Gotama.  They  went,  and  returned  and  said, 
'  We  cannot  kill  him.     Great  is  the  power  of  the  Venerable  One.' 

Next  Deva-datta  climbed  up  the  Vulture's  Peak,  and  hurled  down 
a  mighty  rock  on  the  Venerable  One.  But  two  mountain  peaks  came 
together  and  stoj)ped  that  rock.  [Fa-hien  says  that  it  hurt  one  of 
his  toes.  Legge,  p.  83.]  Now  at  that  time  there  was  at  Eaja-griha 
an  elephant  named  Nalagiri,  fierce  and  a  man-slayei'.  And  Deva-datta 
caused  the  elephant  to  be  let  loose  against  Gotama.  But  the  Venerable 
One  infused  a  sense  of  love  into  the  elephant.  And  the  elephant 
extended  his  trunk  and  took  up  the  dust  from  off  the  feet  of  the 
Venerable  One  and  sprinkled  it  over  his  own  head,  and  retired 
bowing  backwards,  gazing  upon  the  Venerable  One. 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  hell  to  which  Deva-datta 
was  condemned  for  his  attempts  upon  the  Buddha's 
life,  is  thus  described  by  Burmese  authorities  : — 

The  imj)ious  Deva-datta,  a  cousin  and  brother-in-law  of  the  Buddha, 
suffers  terrible  punishment  in  Hell.  His  feet  are  sunk  ankle-deep 
in  burning  marl.  His  head  is  incased  with  a  red  hot  metal  cap 
down  to  the  lobe  of  the  ears.  Two  large  red-hot  bars  transfix  him 
from  back  to  front,  two  horizontally  from  right  to  left,  and  one 
impales  him  from  head  to  foot.     (Shway  Yoe's  '  Burman,'  i.  121.) 

It  should  be  mentioned  in  connexion  with  Eaja-griha 
that  Ajata-satru  built  a  grand  Stupa  there,  over  a  por- 
tion of  the  Buddha's  ashes,  soon  after  his  cremation. 

Another  fact  which  enhances  the  interest  of  this 
place  is  the  propinquity  of  the  celebrated  Satta-panni 
cave  (p.  55),  where  the  Buddhist  brotherhood  first 
assembled  after  their  leader's  death. 


Buddha's  favourite  residence  at  sravastI.     407 

Srdvastl. 

Sravasti  (Pali,  Savatthi),  sometimes  spelt  Sravasti, 
has  been  identified  by  General  Cunningham  with  a  place 
now  called  Sahet-Mahet,  about  fifty-eight  miles  north 
of  Ajudhya  in  Oudh.  The  town  is  said  to  derive  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  it  was  built  by  a  certain  King 
Srilvasta.  Other  native  authorities  derive  it  from  a 
Kishi  named  Savattha,  who  is  said  to  have  resided  there. 
It  was  certainly  the  ancient  capital  of  Kosala  (Oudh), 
and  was  ruled  over  by  King  Prasena-jit  (Pali,  Pasenadi), 
who  was  Gautama's  contemporary.  Moreover,  it  was 
the  Buddha's  favourite  place  of  retreat  ^  during  the 
rainy  seasons  (p.  48  of  this  volume),  about  half  of  his 
Vassas  having  been  spent  there  -  in  the  Jeta-vana 
monastery  built  for  him  by  the  wealthy  merchant 
Anatha-pindika  (Anepidu),  sometimes  called  Su-datta. 

Doubtless  on  this  account  Sravasti  was  once  much 
resorted  to  by  the  Buddha's  followers,  and  ultimately 
became  an  important  seat  of  Buddhist  learning. 

The  celebrated  monastery,  the  ruins  of  which  still 
exist,  was  erected  in  the  garden  (vana)  of  Prince  Jeta, 
who  parted  with  the  land  to  Su-datta  on  condition  that 
he  would  cover  it  with  gold  coins.  This  was  done,  till 
eighteen  krores   of  coins  had  been  spread  out  like  a 

^  Here,  therefore,  there  was  a  Gaiidha-kutl  (see  note,  p.  404). 

2  Fa-hien  says,  '  Here  lived  Buddha  for  a  longer  time  than  at  any- 
other  place,'  and  on  that  account,  perhaps,  was  called  Dharma-pattana 
(Beal's  '  Eecords,'  ii.  i).  It  was  at  this  place  that  the  Brahmacarlns 
killed  a  courtesan,  and  accused  Buddha  of  adultery  and  mui-der  (see 
Legge,  p.  59  ;  Beal,  ii.  8). 


4o8  SACEED    PLACES. 

pavement  on  the  ground.  Both  Fa-hien  and  Hiouen 
Thsano-  mention  this  incident,  and  the  former  states 
that  the  monastery  was  seven  stories  high  ^  The  pave- 
ment of  coins  is  represented  in  one  of  the  sculptures 
belonging  to  the  Sttipa  of  Bharhut  (Cunningham,  pp. 
84-87),  as  well  as  on  one  of  the  pillars  of  Asoka's  rail- 
ing at  Buddha-G-aya. 

Sravasti  was  the  place  where,  according  to  Fa-hien, 
the  first  sandal-wood  image  of  Buddha  was  set  up  in  a 
monastery  by  King  Prasena-jit  (see  p.  47 1)  ".  A  colossal 
erect  figure  of  the  Buddha  was  found  here  in  a  temple 
excavated  by  Sir  A.  Cunningham,  but  this  was  of  stone. 

With  regard  to  the  celebrated  sandal-wood  image, 
Fa-hien  (p.  57)  relates  a  strange  legend  of  its  preser- 
vation by  a  miracle  : — 

'  The  kings  and  people  of  tlie  countries  around  vied  with  one  another 
in  their  offerings  (to  the  image).  Hanging  up  about  it  silken  canopies, 
.scattering  flowers,  burning  incense,  and  lighting  lamps.  It  happened 
that  a  rat,  carrying  in  its  mouth  the  wick  of  a  lamp,  set  one  of  the 
canopies  on  fire,  which  caught  the  Vihara,  and  the  seven  stories  were 
all  consumed.  The  kings  and  people  were  all  very  sad,  supposing 
that  the  sandal-wood  image  had  been  bui'ned ;  but  lo !  when  a 
small  Vihara  to  the  east  was  ojiened,  there  was  seen  the  original 
image  ! ' 

Fil-hien  goes  on  to  describe  another  miracle  : — 

'  To  the  north-west  of  the  Yihura  there  is  a  grove  called  "  The  getting' 
of  Eyes."  Formerly  there  were  five  hundred  blind  men,  who  lived 
here;  Buddha  preached  his  Law  to  them,  and  they  all  got  back 
their  eyesight.     Full  of  joy  they  stuck  their  staves  in  the  earth,  and 


'  Legge,  pp.57,  59;  Beal,  ii.  5. 
Another  statue,  claiming  to  be  the  genuine  sandal-wood  image, 
was  at  KausambI  (see  p.  412). 


VAISALI,    PLACE    OF    SECOND    COUNCIL.  409 

did  reverence.     The  staves  immediately  began  to  grow,  aud  formed 
a  grove'  (Legge,  pp.  58,  59). 

Hiouen  Thsang  states  that  in  his  time  the  towns  and 
monasteries  al)ont  Sravasti  were  mostly  in  ruins.  He, 
too,  gives  an  interesting  account  of  a  miraculous  inci- 
dent which  occurred  there  : — 

To  the  north-east  of  the  Jeta-vana  garden  is  the  place  where  the 
Buddha  washed  a  sick  jNIonk,  who  lived  apart  l)y  himself  in  a  solitary- 
place.  The  Lord  of  the  World  seeing  him  inquired,  '  What  is  your 
affliction  1 '  He  answered,  '  In  former  days,  my  disposition  being  a 
careless  one,  I  never  looked  on  any  sick  man  with  pity,  and  now 
when  I  am  sick,  no  one  looks  on  me.'  Thereupon  the  Buddha  said 
to  him,  '  My  son !  I  will  look  on  you,'  and  touching  him  with  his 
hand,  he  healed  the  sickness.  Then  leading  him  forth,  he  washed 
his  body,  and  gave  him  new  clothes,  and  said,  '  From  this  time  for- 
ward be  diligent  and  exert  yourself.'  Hearing  this,  the  penitent 
monk,  moved  by  gratitude  and  filled  with  joy,  followed  the  Buddha 
and  became  his  disciple.     (Founded  on  Beal,  ii.  5,  abridged.) 

Vaisdil. 

Vaisali  (in  Pali  Vesali,  now  Besarh)  lies  twenty  miles 
north  of  Haji-pur,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges,  and 
twenty-seven  north-east  of  Patna.  This  town  (the  city 
of  the  Licchavis)  is  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the  second 
Council  (p.  57).  Near  it,  at  a  place  called  Bakhra,  is  a 
celebrated  ancient  pillar  surmounted  by  a  lion  (see  Cun- 
ningham, i.  59).  Vaisali,  however,  is  chiefly  noted  as 
one  of  the  places  where  Gautama  often  preached  and 
taught,  and  where  he  stopped  on  his  way  to  Kusinfira, 
the  place  of  his  death.  His  usual  residence  was  in  a 
Vihara,  described  by  Fa-hien  as  double-galleried,  and  in 
a  garden  presented  to  him  by  the  courtesan  Amba-pali, 
whom  he  converted  and  induced  to  live  a  virtuous  life. 


4IO  SACRED   PLACES. 

He  also  resided  for  the  fifth  year  of  his  teaching  in  a 
building  called  the  Kutagara^  hall. 

Hiouen  Thsang  speaks  of  the  town  and  of  the  objects 
of  interest  round  it  thus  (Beal,  ii.  66-75)  • — 

Both  heretics  and  believers  are  found  here  living  together.  There 
are  several  hundred  monasteries  (Saiigharamas)  which  are  mostly 
dilapidated.  There  are  also  several  Deva  temples,  occupied  by  sec- 
taries of  different  kinds.  The  followers  of  the  Nirgranthas  (i.e.  of 
the  .Jains)  are  very  numerous. 

To  the  north  is  a  Stupa  which  indicates  the  place  where  Tathagata 
stopped  and  took  leave  of  the  Licchavis,  on  his  way  to  Kusi-nagara 
to  die.  "Wishing  him  to  quit  the  world,  ^lara  (compare  p.  41)  came 
to  Buddha  and  said,  *  You  have  now  dwelt  sufficiently  long  in  the 
world.  Those  whom  you  have  saved  from  the  circling  streams  of 
transmigration  are  as  numerous  as  the  sand.'  The  Buddha  replied, 
'  No,  those  who  are  saved  are  as  the  grains  of  dust  on  my  nail ;  those 
who  are  not  saved  are  like  the  grains  of  dust  on  the  whole  earth. 
Nevertheless,  after  three  months  I  shall  die.'  Mara  hearing  this  was 
rejoiced,  and  departed. 

Both  within  and  without  the  city  of  Vaisall  and  all  round  it,  the 
sacred  vestiges  are  so  numerous,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  recount 
them  all.  To  the  north-west  is  a  Stupa  at  the  spot  where  Buddha 
dwelt  when  he  recited  the  history  of  his  former  birth  (Jataka)  as 
a  Cakra-vartin  or  Universal  Monarch  (compare  p.  423)  possessed  of  the 
seven  treasures.  To  the  south-east  is  a  great  Stupa,  marking  the 
place  where  the  convocation  of  the  seven  hundred  sages  and  saints 
was  held,  one  hundred  and  ten  years  after  the  NirvJlna  of  Buddha, 
to  compel  the  monks  who  had  broken  the  laws  of  Buddha  to  obey 
them. 

It  appears  that  the  Licchavis  of  Vaisali  obtained  a 
large  quantity  of  the  relics  of  the  Buddha's  body,  and 
built  a  Stupa  over  them. 

According  to  Fa-hien  they  also  erected  a  Stupa  over 

^  A  kutagara  is  properly  any  building  with  a  peaked  roof  (kuta)  or 
pinnacle. 


EESIDENCE    AT   KAUSAMBI.  4II 

half  the  relics  of  the  burnt  body  of  Ananda  (see  p.  47 
of  this  volume),  the  other  being  deposited  near  Eaja- 
griha.     His  narrative  runs  as  follows  : — 

When  Ananda  was  going  from  Magadha  to  Vaiiall,  wishing  his 
Pari-nirvana  to  take  place  there,  king  Ajata-satru  heard  of  his  in- 
tention, and  set  out  with  his  retinue  to  follow  him. 

The  Licchavis,  too,  when  they  heard  that  Ananda  was  coming  to 
their  city,  went  out  to  meet  him.  In  this  way  both  parties  arrived 
together  at  the  river,  and  Ananda,  thinking  to  himself  that  he  ought 
to  please  both,  burnt  his  own  body  in  the  middle  of  the  river,  and 
thus  attained  Pari-nirvana  in  a  fiery  ecstasy  of  Samadhi.  Then  his 
body  was  divided  into  two,  so  that  each  got  one  half  as  a  sacred  relic 
(Legge,  pp.  75-77). 

Kausdmhl. 

Kausambi  (in  Pali  Kosambi),  now  Kosam  \  on  the  river 
Jumna,  about  thirty  miles  from  Allahabad,  was  once  a 
place  hallowed  by  many  Brahmanical  associations,  and  is 
mentioned  in  the  Kamayana.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
Kausamba  country,  and  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Kusamba,  tenth  in  descent  from  Pururavas.  Without 
doubt  it  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  India.  It 
was  also  the  city  of  King  Udayana,  w^iose  story  is 
alluded  to  by  the  greatest  of  all  Sanskrit  poets,  Kali- 
dasa,  in  his  '  Cloud-Messenger  2.'  Furthermore,  Kau- 
sambi is  the  city  in  which  the  scene  of  the  Sanskrit 
drama  Ratnavali  was  laid^. 

The  Buddha  resided  there   in  the  sixth  and  ninth 


^  Cunningham  (i.  301)  gives  a  full  account  of  the  place. 

2  The  story  is  fully  narrated  in  the  second  and  third  books  of  the 
Katha-sarit-sagara  of  Soma  Deva.  See  my  '  Indian  Wisdom,'  p.  S"- 
King  Udayana  is  said  to  have  been  a  contemporary  of  the  Buddha. 

2  See  my  '  Indian  Wisdom,'  p.  486. 


412  SACKED   PLACES. 

years  of  his  Buddliahood,  and  probably  visited  tbe  place 
at  other  times.  This  was  the  chief  cause  of  its  reputa- 
tion in  connexion  with  Buddhism.  But  it  also  derived 
its  sacred  character  from  the  fact  that  it  contained  the 
celebrated  sandal-wood  image  ^  of  the  Buddha,  believed 
to  have  been  carved  during  his  life-time,  by  a  sculptor 
sent  by  Moggallana  (see  last  line,  p.  414)  at  King  Uda- 
yana's  request,  to  the  Trayastrinsa  heaven,  when  the 
Buddha  was  there  preaching  the  Law  to  his  mother 
(see  p.  207). 

In  a  village  near  at  hand  Sir  A.  Cunningham  (i.  308) 
found  two  sculptured  pillars,  and  the  pedestal  of  a 
statue  inscribed  with  the  '  Ye  dharma  '  formula  (see  p. 
104).  A  great  monolith  was  also  discovered  there.  In 
Fa-hien's  time  a  Vihara  existed  at  the  spot  where  the 
Buddha  had  explained  the  Law  (Legge,  p.  96).  Hiouen 
Thsang  mentions  that  a  lofty  Stupa,  200  feet  high,  was 
erected  by  Asoka  near  at  hand. 

There  was  also  a  cavern  in  which  the  Buddha  had 
left  his  shadow  impressed  on  the  rock.  He  also  speaks 
of  ten  monasteries  all  in  ruins. 

Ndla7ida. 
Nalanda^  was  the  greatest  seat  of  Buddhist  learning 
in  India.     It  has  been  identified  by  Sir  A.  Cunningham 
with  the  village  of  Baragaon,  about  seven  miles  north  of 

^  See  Hiouen  Thsang's  accouut  of  it,  p.  471.  Another  similar 
image  belonged  to  King  Praseuajit  at  SrrivastI,  see  pp.  408,  471. 

^  The  name  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  that  of  a  Naga,  who 
lived  in  a  neighbouring  tank.  See  the  description  in  two  Chinese 
Buddhist  inscriptions  found  at  Buddha-Gayfi.  R.  A.  S.  Journal,  vol. 
xiii. 


NALANDA. 


41. 


Kaja-griha,  about  thirty  miles  south-east  of  the  modern 
Patna,  and  about  forty  miles  from  Buddha-Gaya.  Sir 
Alexander  states  that  Baragaon  possesses  immense  ruins 
and  more  numerous  specimens  of  sculpture  than  any 
other  place  visited  by  him.  According  to  Hiouen  Thsang, 
the  Buddha  preached  the  Law  there  for  three  months. 
The  vast  extent  and  importance  of  the  monastery 
(Sangharama)  or  monasteries  at  Nalanda  have  been 
already  alluded  to  (p.  169).  Fa-hien,  however,  does  not 
mention  them,  which  seems  to  indicate  that  they  were 
built  subsequently  to  a.d.  425.  Hiouen  Thsang,  who 
travelled  in  the  seventh  century,  is  said  to  have  resided 
there  for  five  years  as  a  student.  Ten  thousand  monks, 
renowned  for  their  learning,  lived  and  studied  in  six 
magnificent  buildings.  The  following  is  an  extract 
from  the  later  Chinese  traveller's  description  of  it  (Beal, 
ii.  70) :— 

The  monks  of  Nalanda,  to  the  number  of  several  thousands,  are 
men  of  the  highest  ability.  Their  conduct  is  pure  and  unblamable, 
although  the  rules  of  the  monastery  are  severe.  The  day  is  not 
suflScient  for  asking  and  answering  profound  questions.  From  morn- 
ing till  night  the  monks  engage  in  discussion ;  the  old  and  the  young 
mutually  helping  one  another.  Those  who  cannot  discuss  questions 
out  of  the  Tripitaka  are  little  esteemed,  and  are  obliged  to  hide  them- 
selves for  shame.  Hence  learned  men  from  different  cities  come  here 
in  multitudes  to  settle  their  doubts  ;  and  thence  the  streams  of  their 
wisdom  sjjread  far  and  wide.  For  this  reason  some  persons  usurp 
the  name  of  Nrdanda  students,  and  in  going  to  and  fro  receive  honour 
in  consequence. 

If  men  from  other  quarters  desire  to  enter  and  take  part  in  the 
discussions,  the  keei:)er  of  the  gate  jn'oposes  some  hard  questions ; 
those  who  are  unable  to  answer  have  to  retire.  One  must  liave 
studied  deeply  both  old  and  new  books,  before  gaining  admission. 
Those  students  who  come  as  strangers,  have  to  show  their  ability  by 


414 


SACRED    PLACES. 


hard  discussion;    those  who  fail  compared  with  those  who  succeed 
are  as  seven  or  eight  to  ten. 

Sankdsya. 

Sankasya,  now  called  Sankisa,  about  fifty  miles 
north-west  of  Kanouj,  was  identified  by  Sir  A.  Cun- 
ningham in  1842.  It  was  evidently  once  a  large  town 
with  many  remarkable  monuments,  and  ought  to  be 
reckoned  among  the  most  sacred  places  of  Buddhism. 
Hiouen  Thsang  describes  it  under  the  name  Kie-pi-tha 
(Kapitha). 

It  is  said  that  the  Buddha's  mother  died  seven  days 
after  his  birth  (see  p.  24  of  this  volume),  and  was  thus 
deprived  of  the  advantage  of  hearing  the  Law  from  her 
son's  lips.  To  compensate  her  for  this  loss,  the  Buddha 
ascended  by  his  own  supernatural  power  in  three  steps 
to  the  Trayastrinsa  heaven  of  Indra  (p.  207),  to  which 
his  mother  had  been  transported,  and  there  recited  the 
Law  for  three  months  for  her  benefit.  His  return  to 
earth  seems  to  have  been  a  more  difficult  matter;  for 
his  descent  was  not  effected  without  the  help  of  a 
ladder  with  three  parallel  flights  of  steps,  made  for 
him  by  the  god  Indra. 

Fa-hien  describes  this  miraculous  incident  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  (Legge,  48,  abridged) : — 

Sankasya  is  the  place  where  Buddha  came  down  after  ascending 
to  the  Trayastrinsa  heaven,  and  there  preaching  his  Law  for  three 
months  for  his  mother's  benefit.  Buddha  had  ascended  there  by  his 
supernatural  power,  without  the  knowledge  of  his  disciples ;  but 
seven  days  before  his  return,  Anuruddha,  by  his  own  supernatural 
vision,  saw  him  in  heaven,  and  requested  Moggallana  (see  p.  47  of  this 
volume)  to  ascend  to  Indra's  heaven  to  inquire  after  '  the  World- 
honoured  one.'      Moggallana  did  so,  and  returned  with  the  inform- 


DESCENT   FROM   HEAVEN   AT    SANKASYA.  41  5 

ation  tliat  in  seven  days  the  Buddha  would  return.  Then  the  kincrs 
of  eight  countries  with  their  people,  not  having  seen  Buddha  for  a 
long  time,  were  all  eagerly  looking  up  for  him  to  return.  But  the 
female  mendicant  Utpala^  thought  in  her  heart,  'To-day,  the  kings, 
with  their  ministers  and  people,  are  all  going  to  meet  Buddha.  I  am 
but  a  woman ;  how  shall  I  succeed  in  being  the  first  to  see  him  1 ' 
Then  Buddha,  by  his  supernatural  power,  changed  her  into  the 
appearance  of  a  Universal  Emperor,  so  that  she  was  the  foremost  of 
all  to  meet  and  to  do  reverence  to  him. 

At  his  descent  three  flights  of  steps  were  created.  Buddha  de- 
scended on  the  middle  flight,  composed  of  the  seven  precious  sub- 
stances;  Maha-Brahma,  king  of  the  Brahma  heavens  (see  p.  211  of 
this  volume),  came  down  by  a  flight  of  silver  steps  on  the  right  side, 
and  Sakra  (Indra),  lord  of  the  thirty -three  divinities  (p.  207),  de- 
scended by  steps  of  gold  on  the  left  side,  holding  a  canojiy  made  of 
the  seven  precious  substances.  An  innumerable  multitude  of  gods 
followed.  No  sooner  had  the  Buddha  come  down  than  all  three 
flights  disappeared  in  the  ground,  except  seven  steps,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  visible. 

Afterwards  King  Asoka,  being  eager  to  ascertain  where  their  ends 
rested,  sent  men  to  find  out  by  digging.  They  dug  down  till  they 
reached  a  yellow  spring,  but  could  not  discover  the  bottom  of  the 
steps.  Hence  the  king  felt  an  increase  of  devotion,  and  built  a 
Vihara  over  the  steps,  with  a  standing  image  of  Buddha  sixteen 
cubits  high.  Behind  the  Vihara  he  erected  a  stone  pillar,  about  fifty 
cubits  high,  with  a  lion  on  the  top  of  it.  A  dispute  arose  between 
some  heretics  and  the  Buddhist  monks  about  the  ownership  of  the 
place,  and  the  former  agreed  to  give  up  their  claim  if  any  super- 
natural sign  occurred ;  upon  which  tlie  lion  on  the  column  gave 
a  great  roar. 

Fa-hien  adds  that  a  Stiipa  was  erected  on  the  spot 
where  Buddha  descended ;  another  Avhere  the  female  men- 
dicant caught  the  first  sight  of  Buddha  at  his  descent. 

The  basement  of  King  Asoka's  pillar  was  found  by- 
General  Cunningham  in  1876.     On  a  previous  occasion 

^  This  TJtpala  must  be  the  same  as  Utpala-varnu  (see  p.  48  of  this 
volume). 


41 6  SACRED    PLACES. 

he  discovered  the  capital  of  the  ancient  pillar  sur- 
mounted by  an  elephant,  which  may  have  been  mis- 
taken by  Fa-hien  for  a  lion  (see  Cunningham,  i.  274). 

Hiouen  Thsang,  in  his  account  of  the  three  ladders 
(Beal,  i.  202),  says  that  they  were  arranged  side  by  side 
from  north  to  south,  so  that  those  who  descended  might 
have  their  faces  to  the  east,  and  that  the  flight  by  which 
India  descended  was  of  crystal  (not  of  gold),  while  that 
used  by  Brahma,  was  of  silver,  and  the  Buddha's  steps 
were  of  gold  (or  of  the  seven  precious  substances,  of 
which  gold  was  one).  This  indicated  the  superiority  of 
Buddha  over  the  two  gods  who  accompanied  him. 

In  harmony  with  these  ideas  Indra  and  Brahma  are 
sometimes  represented  in  Buddhistic  sculptures  standmg 
one  on  each  side  of  the  Buddha,  and  protecting  him. 
They  were  also  present  at  his  birth  (see  p.  483  and 
engraving  opposite  p.  477). 

Hiouen  Thsang  adds  that  some  centuries  before  his 
time  the  ladders  still  existed  in  their  original  j30sition  ; 
but,  when  he  visited  the  spot,  they  had  sunk  into  the 
earth,  and  disappeared.  Sahkasya,  however,  was  still 
much  frequented.  A  magnificent  image  of  the  Buddha 
was  preserved  in  a  large  monastery  there,  and  1000 
priests  were  studying  the  doctrines  of  the  Sammatiya, 
a  school  of  the  Hina-yana,  in  four  monasteries.  Fur- 
thermore, many  '  myriads '  of  pious  laymen  lived  in  the 
neighbourhood. 

The  story  of  Buddha's  descent  from  heaven  by  help 
of  golden  steps  is  commonly  believed  both  in  Ceylon  and 
Burma  to  the  present  day.  The  legend,  as  current  in 
Ceylon,  is  given  by  Spence  Hardy  (Manual,  p.  311). 


DESCENT   FROM   HEAVEN   BY   TRIPLE    LADDER.      417 

It  appears  that  when  Buddha  was  about  to  return  to 
earth  from  the  god  Indra's  heaven,  the  god  reflected 
that,  although  Buddha  had  ascended  in  three  steps,  his 
descent  ought  to  be  celebrated  '  with  special  honours.' 
He  therefore  caused  a  ladder  of  gold  to  extend  from  the 
Mountain  Meru  (see  p.  206  of  the  present  Lectures)  to 
Sankasva,  80,000  Yojanas^  in  length.  The  steps  were 
alternately  of  gold,  silver,  coral,  ruby,  emerald  and  other 
gems.  At  the  right  side  of  the  ladder  he  created 
another,  also  of  gold,  by  which  Indra,  blowing  the  conch, 
descended,  accompanied  by  his  own  gods ;  and  on  the 
left  another  ladder  of  silver,  by  which  Brahma  and  the 
Brahma  gods  (p.  210)  descended,  holding  umbrellas 
over  the  Buddha.  The  three  flights  of  steps  appeared 
to  the  people  of  the  earth  like  three  rainbows.  When 
Buddha  commenced  his  descent  all  the  worlds  were 
illuminated  by  the  light  from  his  body. 

With  this  extravagant  myth — believed  in  as  a  his- 
torical fact  by  most  Buddhists — we  may  contrast  the 
simple  narrative  of  Jacob's  dream  in  Genesis  xxviii. 

Nevertheless  the  legend  is  curious,  and  I  was  greatly 
pleased  by  discovering  in  the  Indian  Section  of  the 
South  Kensington  Museum,  a  small  bronze  model  of  the 
triple  ladder,  lately  dug  up  at  Moulmein.  Mr.  Purdon 
Clarke,  C.I.E.,  the  present  Keeper,  kindly  had  the  model 
photographed,  and  presented  me  with  a  drawing  of  it. 
This  I  have  had  engraved,  and  here  give- 

^  A  Yojana  is  variously  estimated  at  4  or  5  or  9  English  miles. 


E  e 


4i8 


SACRED   PLACES. 


It  will  be  observed  that  an  image  of  the  Buddha 
is  represented  above  the  ladder,  as  if  seated  in  Indra's 
heaven,  and  as  if  engaged  in  the  act  of  teaching  there  ; 
while  the  earth  is  typically  represented  below  in  the 
shape  of  a  square  platform,  with  four  small  Buddhist 
temples,  one  at  each  of  the  four  quarters  of  the  compass 
(compare  p.  85). 

A  ruder  representation  of  the  ladder  occurs  in  the 
sculptures  of  the  Bharhut  Stupa  (Cunningham,  p.  92). 


SAKETA    OR   AYODHYA.  419 

The  General  found  an  imperfect  representation  of  it 
carved  in  soap-stone  at  Sankisa  in  1876  (Keport,xi.  26). 

Sdheta. 

Saketa  is  a  name  of  the  ancient  city  Ayodhya  (now 
Ajtidhya)  described  in  Vahniki's  great  epic  the  Rama- 
yana,  and  believed  to  have  been  founded  by  Manu, 
the  progenitor  of  the  human  race.  This  renowned  city, 
which  was  a  great  centre  of  Brahmanism,  was  also,  no 
doubt,  at  one  time  a  considerable  centre  of  Buddhism. 
At  all  events,  the  identification  of  certain  Buddhist  sites 
there  has  been  made  clear  by  Sir  A.  Cunningham,  who 
considers  Saketa  to  be  the  same  as  the  Pi-so-kia  (Visakha) 
of  Hiouen  Thsang  and  the  Sha-che  or  Sha-khe  of  Ffi-hien, 
The  former  found  twenty  monasteries  there,  and  3000 
priests  studying  the  Little  Vehicle  according  to  the 
Sammatiya  school ;  also  fifty  Deva  temples  and  very 
many  heretics. 

In  one  of  the  monasteries  resided  the  Arhat  Deva- 
sarma,  who  wrote  a  treatise  called  the  Vijiiana-kaya- 
sastra  in  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  the  non-existence 
of  any  Ego  or  personal  self  A  Stupa,  200  feet  bigh, 
was  built  by  Asoka  in  the  place  where  Buddha  is  sup- 
posed to  have  preached  and  taught  during  six  years. 

Both  Fa-hien  and  Hiouen  Thsang  mention  the  legend 
that  he  one  day  threw  on  the  ground  a  twig  he  had 
used  to  clean  his  teeth  (danta-kashtha),  which  sprouted 
and  grew  into  a  miraculous  tree  seven  cubits  high,  at 
which  height  it  always  remained.  The  Brahmans  be- 
came jealous  of  the  miracle  and  sometimes  cut  the  tree 
down,  sometimes  uprooted  it,  but  it  always  grew  again 

E  e  2 


420  SACRED   PLACES. 

and  remained  at  tlie  same  height.  Here  also  is  the 
place  where  the  four  Buddhas  (p.  400)  walked  and  sat 
(Legge,  pp.  54,  55  ;  ^eal,  i.  240). 

Kant/d-Jciihja  (Kanouj). 

Kanya-kubja^  is  the  Sanskrit  name  for  the  ancient 
city  of  Kanonj  (often  spelt  Kanoj),  once  the  capital  of 
Northern  India,  and  said  to  he  the  oldest  city  in  India, 
next  to  Ayodhya. 

When  Hiouen  Thsang  visited  this  place  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  celebrated  monarch  Harsha-vardhana,  also 
called  Siladitya  (see  p.  167  of  this  volume),  whose  king- 
dom extended  fro^n  Kashmir  to  Assam  and  from  the 
river  Narbadil  to  Nepfd.  When  he  carried  off  a  tooth- 
relic  of  the  Buddha  from  Kashmir,  his  procession  back  to 
his  capital  was  attended  by  a  large  number  of  tributary 
kings.  Hiouen  Thsang,  in  describing  the  piety  of  this 
great  monarch,  says  of  him,  that  '  he  sought  to  plant  the 
tree  of  religious  merit  to  such  an  extent  that  he  forgot 
to  sleep  and  to  eat.'     He  goes  on  to  state  as  follows  : — 

King  Siladitya  forbade  the  slaughter  of  any  living  thing  as  food 
on  pain  of  death.  He  built  several  thousand  Stupas,  each  about 
100  feet  high.  Then  in  all  the  highways  of  the  towns  and  villages 
throughout  India  he  erected  hospices,  and  stationed  physicians  there 
with  medicines  for  travellers  and  the  poor  persons  round  about.  On 
all  spots  where  there  were  holy  traces  of  Buddha,  he  built  monasteries. 
Once  in  five  years  he  held  the  great  assembly  called  Moksha.     Then 

^  Hiouen  Thsang  states  that  this  name,  which  means  a  'hump- 
backed virgin,'  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  an  old  sage  (Rishi),  who 
possessed  supernatural  powers,  cursed  ninety-nine  daughters  of  king 
Brahma-datta  for  refusing  to  marry  him,  and  made  them  deformed 
(Beal,  i.  209).  A  different  legend  is  given  in  my  Sanskrit-English 
Dictionary. 


KANYA-KUBJA.      PATALI-PUTRA.  42 1 

every  year  lie  assembled  the  monks,  and  bestowed  on  them  the  four  kinds 
of  alms  (food,  drink,  medicine,  clothing).  He  ordered  them  to  carry 
on  discussions,  and  himself  judged  of  their  arguments.  He  rewarded 
the  good  and  punished  the  wicked.  He  promoted  the  men  of  talent, 
and  degraded  evil  men.  Wherever  he  moved  he  dwelt  in  a  travelling- 
palace,  and  provided  choice  meats  for  men  of  all  sorts  of  religion.  Of 
these  the  Buddhist  priests  would  be  perhaps  a  thousand;  the  Brah- 
mans  five  hundred  \  He  divided  each  day  into  three  portions. 
During  the  first  he  occupied  himself  on  matters  of  government; 
during  the  second  he  practised  himself  in  religious  devotion  (Beal, 
i.  214). 

Notwithstanding  Hiouen  Thsang's  description  of 
various  Sttipas,  monasteries  and  monuments  seen  by 
him,  General  Sir  A.  Cunningham  wr^s  not  able  to  iden- 
tify any  of  the  existing  ruins  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Kanouj,  '  so  completely  has  almost  every  trace  of 
Hindu  occupation  been  obliterated  by  the  Musalmans' 
(Report,  i.  284). 

Fa-hien  mentions  a  Stupa  near  the  town,  built  on  the 
spot  where  the  Buddha  preached  a  discoiurse  on  '  the 
bitterness  and  vanity  of  life,'  comparing  it  to  '  a  bubble 
or  foam  on  water'  (Legge,  54). 

Pdtali-piitra. 

Patali-putra  (now  Patna)  seems  to  have  existed  as  a 
village  at  a  very  early  period.  Its  ancient  name  was 
Kusuma-pura.  It  was  enlarged  and  practically  founded 
about  the  time  of  the  Buddha's  death  by  Ajata-satru  \ 


^  This  is  very  instructive  in  regard  to  the  numerical  proportion 
between  Brahmans  and  Buddhists  at  this  place. 
2  According  to  Cunningham,  about  B.C.  450. 


422 


SACKED   PLACES. 


who  did  not,  however,  remove  there  from  his  own  capital 
city  Kaja-griha.  One  of  his  successors,  the  great  King 
Asoka,  the  well-known  patron  of  Buddhism  (p.  66), 
converted  Patali-putra  into  the  metropolis  of  the  king- 
dom of  Magadha,  and  it  thenceforward  became  an  im- 
portant centre  of  Buddhism.  Sir  A.  Cunningham 
states  that  it  continued  flourishing  as  the  capital  of  the 
great  Gupta  kingdom  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  era. 

Fa-hien  relates  a  tradition  that  King  Asoka's  palace 
in  the  city  was  built  by  genii  (spirits),  who  brought 
great  rocks  and  constructed  chambers  by  heaping  them 
together.  He  describes  a  monastery  belonging  to  the 
Great  Vehicle,  and  a  temple  belonging  to  the  Little 
Vehicle,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city,  and  gives  an 
account  of  a  Buddhist  procession  of  four-wheeled  cars 
and  images  which  took  place  once  a  year.  Each  car 
was  twenty -two  feet  or  more  high,  and  had  five  stories, 
with  niches  on  four  sides,  in  which  were  placed  images 
of  the  Buddha  and  the  Bodhi-sattvas,  along  with  images 
of  the  gods  (devas).  They  were  made  to  look  like 
moving  pagodas  (or  Bagabas).  The  Hindus,  as  we  know, 
have  similar  car-processions  to  this  day,  when  the  images 
of  Krishna  are  dragged  through  the  streets  of  towns 
and  villages. 

Fa-hien  mentions  the  interesting  fact  that  the  nobles 
of  the  country  had  founded  hospitals  in  the  cit}^  to  which 
destitute,  crippled,  and  diseased  persons  might  repair, 
and  receive  advice,  food,  and  medicines  suited  to  their 
cases,  gratuitously.     He  adds  that  Asoka,  wishing  to 


STUPA    AT   KESARIYA.  423 

build  84,000  Stupas  ^  in  place  of  the  eight  originally 
constructed  over  the  Buddha's  ashes,  built  the  first 
Stupa  and  a  pillar  near  Patali-putra. 

Near  it  he  says  was  an  impression  of  the  Buddha's 
foot,  over  which  a  temple  with  a  door  towards  the  north 
had  been  erected  (Legge,  pp.  77-80;  Beal,  i.  Iv-lviii). 
The  position  of  the  Stupa  and  column  has  been  discovered 
by  Sir  A.  Cunningham  (xi.  157,  158). 

Kesanya. 

Kesariya  is  a  large  village  about  thirty  miles  distant 
from  Vaisali  (Besarh).  It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  a 
mound  of  ruined  brick-work,  62  feet  in  height,  support- 
ing a  solid  brick  Stupa  (nearly  68J  feet  in  diameter), 
which  is  also  partly  in  ruins.  The  people  call  it  the 
Stupa  of  the  Cakravarti  (Universal  Monarch)  Vena, 
father  of  King  Prithu.  In  Manu,  VII.  41  ;  IX.  66,  67, 
King  Vena  is  described  as  an  arrogant  monarch  who 
resisted  the  authority  of  the  Brahmans.  Probably  he 
favoured  the  Buddhists.  At  any  rate  the  Buddhists 
assert  that  the  remarkable  Stupa  at  this  place  was  built 
to  mark  the  spot  where  Gautama  Buddha  preached  a 
discourse,  in  which  he  described  one  of  his  previous 
births  as  a  Cakravarti  king. 

Not  far  from  the  Stilpa  a  small  mound  has  been 
excavated,  and  the  head  and  shoulders  of  a  colossal 
statue  of  Buddha  brought  to  light  (Cunningham,  i.  67). 

^  One  for  each  of  the  84,000  elements  of  the  body  (p.  499).  The 
real  number  of  Stupas  was  84,  but,  as  usual,  three  ciphers  have  been 
added. 


424  SACKED    PLACES. 

Kusi-nagara. 

Kusi-nagara  (in  Pali  Kusi-nara)  was  the  place  where 
the  Buddha  died,  or — to  speak  more  correctly — passed 
away  in  Pari-nirvana  (see  pp.  48,  49,  140).  It  was  long 
searched  for  in  vain,  but  has  recently  been  identified  by 
Sir  A.  Cunningham  with  the  modern  Kasia,  eighty  miles 
east  of  Kapila-vastu,  and  1 20  miles  N.N.E.  of  Benares. 

Neither  Fa-hien  nor  Hiouen  Thsang  say  much  about 
Kusi-nagara,  except  that  it  was  deserted  and  had  few 
inhabitants ;  but  the  latter's  allusion  to  the  Buddha's 
passing  away  out  of  the  world  at  this  place,  and  his 
account  of  the  subsequent  assembling  of  the  first  council 
at  Eaja-griha  by  order  of  the  great  Kasyapa  (pp.  47,  55), 
is  so  interesting  and  curious  that  I  here  give  an  abstract 
of  his  narrative,  based  on  Mr.  Beal's  translation  (ii. 
161):— 

Once  when  the  great  Kasyapa  was  seated  in  meditation,  suddenly 
a  bright  light  burst  forth,  and  the  earth  shook.  Then,  exerting  his 
faculty  of  supernatural  vision,  he  saw  the  Loi'd  Buddha  passing  away 
into  Pari-nirvana  between  two  trees.  Forthwith  he  ordered  his  fol- 
lowers to  accompany  him  to  the  city  of  Kusi-nagara.  On  the  way 
there  they  met  a  Brahman,  who,  on  being  asked  whence  he  came,  replied, 
'  From  Kusi-nagara,  where  I  saw  your  master  entering  into  Nirvana. 
A  vast  multitude  of  heavenly  beings  were  around  him.' 

Kasyapa  having  heard  these  words  said,  '  The  sun  of  wisdom  has 
extinguished  his  rays.  The  world  is  now  in  darkness.  The  illus- 
trious guide — the  King  of  the  Law — has  left  us ;  the  whole  world 
is  empty  and  afflicted.  Men  and  gods  are  left  without  a  guide.' 
Accordingly,  he  proceeded  to  the  two  trees,  and  looking  on  Buddha, 
offered  worship.  But  certain  careless  monks  said  one  to  another, 
with  satisfaction,  '  Tathagata  has  gone  to  rest.  This  is  good  for  us  ; 
for  now,  if  we  transgress,  who  is  there  to  reprove  us  1 '  Then 
Kasyapa  was  deeply  moved,  and  resolved  to  secure  obedience  to  the 
teaching  of  Buddha. 


Buddha's  death  at  kusi-nagara.  425 

Addressing  the  assembled  multitude,  lie  said,  '  We  ought  to  collect 
the  Law.  Those  who  have  kej^t  it  without  failure,  whose  powers  of 
discrimination  are  clear,  such  persons  may  form  the  assembly.  Those 
who  are  only  learners  must  depart  to  their  homes.' 

On  this  they  went  away,  and  only  999  men  were  left,  including 
Ananda.  But  the  great  Kasyapa  excluded  Anauda  as  being  yet  a 
learner.  Addressing  him,  he  said,  '  You  are  not  yet  free  from  defect ; 
you,  too,  must  leave  the  assembly.  You  were  a  personal  attendant  on 
Buddha,  you  loved  him  much,  and  are,  therefore,  not  free  from  the 
ties  of  affection.' 

So  Ananda  retired  to  a  desert  place.  Wearied  out,  he  desired  to 
lie  down.  Scarcely  had  his  head  reached  the  pillow,  when  lo  !  he 
obtained  the  condition  of  an  Arhat.  Then  he  returned  to  the  door 
of  the  assembly.  But  Kasyapa  said  to  him,  '  Have  you  got  rid  of 
all  ties  1  If  so,  prove  it ;  exercise  your  spiritual  power  and  enter 
without  the  door  being  opened.'  Then  Anauda  entered  through  the 
key-hole,  and  having  paid  reverence  to  the  assembled  monks,  sat 
down. 

This  power  of  reducing  the  body  to  the  size  of  an 
atom,  so  as  to  be  able  to  pass  through  so  minute  an 
aperture  as  a  key-hole,  was  one  of  the  supernatural 
faculties  supposed  to  belong  to  perfected  saints  or  Arhats 
(compare  pp.  133,  245  of  these  Lectures). 

The  consideration  of  Buddhist  Sacred  Places  might 
lead  us  on  to  various  hallowed  spots  in  other  Buddhist 
countries,  for  example,  Anuradha-pura,  Adam's  Peak 
and  Kelani  in  Ceylon ;  the  site  of  the  great  pagoda 
at  Kangoon,  and  of  that  near  Mandalay  in  Burma;  the 
site  of  the  Buddha's  foot-print  (Phra  Bat)  in  Siam ; 
the  snows  of  Kinchinjunga  in  Sikkim ;  the  city  of  Lhassa 
and  its  monasteries  in  Tibet ;  Kuren  in  Mongolia  ;  but 
all  these,  and  other  places,  have  either  been  incidentally 
mentioned  in  previous  Lectures  or  will  be  more  fully 
noticed  hereafter. 


LECTURE    XV. 

Monasteries  and  Temi)les. 

Buddhist  monasteries  deserve  a  fuller  notice  than 
the  incidental  allusions  we  have  made  to  them  in  pre- 
vious Lectures. 

The  duty  of  dwelling  under  trees,  and  not  in  houses, 
according  to  the  example  set  by  all  the  Buddhas  (see 
p.  136),  and  especially  by  Gautama  Buddha  himself, 
during  his  long  course  of  meditation  (see  ^.  31),  was 
in  theory  supposed  to  be  binding  on  all  true  monks. 
'  The  root  of  a  tree  for  an  abode '  was  one  of '  the  four 
Resources,'  of  which  every  monk  was  allowed  to  avail 
himself,  and  the  enumeration  of  which  formed  part  of 
the  admission-ceremonies  (see  p.  80). 

At  the  same  time  certain  dispensations  or  indul- 
gences were  specially  granted  at  those  ceremonies,  one 
of  which  was  permission  to  live  in  covered  residences, 
when  not  itinerating.  The  five  kinds  of  dwellings  per- 
missible under  varying  circumstances  are  described  in 
Culla-vagga  (VI.  i,  2).  They  are  Viharas  (monasteries), 
Addhayogas  (i.  e.  houses  of  a  peculiar  shape),  storied 
dwellings  (prasada)  \  mansions  (harmya),  and  caves  (see 
note,  p.  81  of  this  volume). 

It  is  clear  that  any  painful  exposure  of  the  body  to 

^  It  is  difficult  to  understand  exactly  what  these  Addliayoga,  Prasada 
and  Harmya  were.  In  some  Buddhist  countries  storied  houses  are 
considered  objectionable,  as  no  one  likes  to  submit  to  the  indignity  of 
having  the  feet  of  another  person  above  his  head. 


INSTITUTION    OF   MONASTERIES.  427 

the  violent  storms  of  India  was  incompatible  with  one 
of  the  principles  of  Buddhism,  which,  though  it  taught 
self-denial  and  self-sacrifice  of  a  particular  kind,  depre- 
cated all  personal  self-inflicted  pain  and  austerity. 

Yet  it  appears  (from  Maha-vagga,  III.  1 5)  that  at  the 
time  of  his  first  residence  at  Kaja-griha  (see  p.  29  of 
these  Lectures),  the  Buddha  had  not  yet  instituted  '  the 
Retreat'  during  the  rains  (Vassa).  Hence  the  monks 
were  in  the  habit  of  going  on  their  travels  alike  during 
winter,  summer,  and  the  rainy  season. 

The  people  complained  of  this,  and  said  that  the 
monks  in  walking  about  during  wet  weather  were 
unable  to  avoid  crushing  vegetable  life  and  treading 
on  minute  living  things.  Thereupon  the  Buddha  pre- 
scribed that  the  monks  were  to  keep  '  Vassa,'  and  re- 
frain from  peregrination  during  the  rains. 

Soon  afterwards,  when  the  Buddha  had  left  Eaja- 
griha  and  had  taken  up  his  abode  during  Vassa  in  the 
Jeta-vana  garden  at  Savatthi  (see  p.  407),  a  wealthy 
and  pious  layman  (Upasaka)  who  had  built  a  monastery 
(Vihara)  for  the  monks,  sent  to  invite  them  to  reside  in 
it,  saying  that  he  wished  to  hear  them  recite  the  Law 
and  to  bestow  gifts  upon  them.  The  Buddha  permitted 
them  to  go,  but  required  them  to  return  in  seven  days. 
He  gave  the  same  permission  when  another  rich  and 
pious  layman  had  provided  other  residences  and  con- 
veniences for  the  monks,  such  as  a  storied  house,  a 
mansion,  a  store-room,  a  cave,  a  refectory,  a  bathing 
room,  a  well-house,  a  pavilion,  a  park,  etc. 

On  the  other  hand,  when,  on  a  particular  occasion,  a 
monk  wished  to  keep  Vassa  in   a   cattle-pen  (Maha- 


428  MONASTEEIES. 

vagga,  III.  1 2)  the  Buddha  permitted  him  to  do  so.  So, 
again,  on  another  occasion  he  allowed  a  man  to  keep 
Vassa  in  a  caravan,  and  on  a  third  occasion  in  a  covered 
boat  or  ship.  But  it  is  recorded  that  he  prohibited 
Vassa  from  being  kept  in  the  open  air,  or  in  the  hollow 
of  trees  ^  (see  Maha- vagga,  III.  12,  3). 

It  is  evident  from  all  this,  that  even  in  the  early 
days  of  Buddhism,  rich  laymen  were  in  the  habit  of 
seeking  to  acquire  religious  merit  by  providing  com- 
fortable habitations  for  the  monks ;  and  although  at 
first  the  use  of  such  luxuries  was  only  permitted  in  the 
rainy  season,  this  restriction  was  soon  removed,  and 
a  residence  in  covered  dwellings  became  usual  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year. 

Then,  as  Buddhism  spread,  kings,  princes,  and  rich 
men  competed  with  each  other  for  the  privilege  of 
erecting  vast  monasteries — sometimes  called  Viharas^, 
sometimes  Sangharamas — to  which  temples,  libraries, 
and  schools  were  generally  attached,  and  in  which  dwelt 
wealthy  communities  of  monks,  who  were  allowed  to 
hold  property  in  land. 

The  founding  of  extensive  and  important  institutions 
of  this  kind  was,  of  course,  an  exceptional  proceeding. 
As  a  general  rule,  collections  of  monastic  dwellings  were 
of  a  simple  and  unostentatious  character.  In  various 
parts  of  India  are  to  be  seen  in  the  present  day  ancient 
Buddhist   cave-monasteries   now  untenanted,  some  of 

^  The  objection  to  the  hollow  of  trees  was  that  spirits,  ghosts,  and 
goblins  often  took  up  their  abode  there. 

"  The  term  Vihara  was  afterwards  usually  applied  to  temples,  or 
to  buildings  combining  temple  and  monastery  in  one. 


CAVE-MONASTERIES.  429 

them — such  as  the  caves  of  Barabar — as  old  as  the 
third  century  B.C. 

I  myself  visited  those  at  Eloni  (Elura),  twelve  miles 
from  Aurangabad  in  the  Nizam's  territory,  as  well  as 
others  at  Nasik,  Karle,  and  other  places.  The  Elora 
caves  are  possibly  as  old  as  the  third  century  1,  and 
with  the  adjoining  Brahmanical  and  Jain  caves  of  later 
date,  extend  for  one  mile  and  a  quarter  along  the  scarp 
of  an  elevated  plateau.  The  three  groups  of  caves  rival 
each  other  in  the  beauty  and  interest  of  their  sculptures, 
and  together  constitute  one  of  the  wonders  of  India — 
their  position  side  by  side  proving  that  the  adherents  of 
the  three  systems  lived  together  in  harmony.  Among 
the  Buddhist  caves  are  beautiful  '  Caityas '  or  halls  for 
general  worship  (see  p.  450),  refectories  for  commen- 
sality,  and  cells  without  number  for  the  habitation  of 
the  monks.  All  the  excavations  had  become  partially 
filled  up ;  but  the  visit  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1876 
stimulated  the  Nizam's  government  to  clear  away  the 
dust  and  rubbish  of  centuries. 

Then,  besides  cave-monasteries,  the  ruins  of  extensive 
monastic  establishments  built  of  brick,  stone,  or  other 
less  durable  materials,  are  scattered  everywhere  through- 
out India. 

Those  of  the  vast  monastery  of  Nalanda  near  Eaja- 
griha,  and  others  at  various  other  sacred  places,  have 
been  already  described  (see  p.  412). 

Turning  next  to  the  monastic  structures  of  modern 
Buddhist  countries,  and  beginning  with  Ceylon,  we  find 

^  Some  authorities  place  them  iu  the  sixth  ceutui'y  of  our  era. 


430  MONASTERIES. 

that  in  that  island,  as  Spence  Hardy  has  pointed  out, 
and  as  I  myself  observed  during  my  sojourn  there,  the 
residences  of  tlie  monks  are  of  very  simple  construction, 
and  often  extremely  mean  in  appearance.  They  are 
called  Pan-salas  (Panna-sala  =  Sanskrit  Parna-sala)  be- 
cause supposed  to  be  made  of  leaves.  In  general,  how- 
ever, they  are  constructed  of  wattle  filled  up  with  mud, 
the  roof  being  covered  with  straw,  or  with  the  platted 
leaves  of  the  cocoa-nut.  They  are  always  dirty  and 
always  abound  in  cobwebs. 

A  monastery  which  I  saw  near  Kandy  consisted  of 
an  oblong  rectangular  court-yard,  surrounded  in  the 
interior  by  a  kind  of  roofed  cloister  or  verandah,  out  of 
which  opened  the  monks'  cells,  lighted  only  from  the 
sky  above  the  court.  The  interior  walls  of  both  cloister 
and  cells  were  begrimed  with  patches  of  dirt  and 
masses  of  cobwebs,  which  are  never  touched  for  fear  of 
breaking  the  first  Buddhist  commandment,  '  kill  not ' 
(p.  126). 

Of  course  there  are  monasteries  of  a  better  and  more 
imposing  type,  such  as  that  attached  to  the  Maligawa 
temple  of  the  sacred  eye-tooth  on  the  Kandy  lake  (see 

P-  454)- 

In  Burma  the  ordinary  residences  of  the  monks 
appear  to  be  simple  in  character,  like  those  in  Ceylon. 
In  Siam,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  sometimes  elaborate, 
and  often  have  richly-covered  entrances.  At  the  same 
time  the  Siamese  monks  (according  to  Mr.  Alabaster) 
are  in  the  habit  of  itinerating  a  good  deal,  only  re- 
maining in  their  monasteries  during  the  three  months 
of  rains,  when  residence  there  is  imperative. 


MONASTERIES   IN    BURMA.  43 1 

Speaking  of  the  larger  and  more  imposing  monasteries 
(Kyoung)  in  Burma,  Mr.  Scott  says  (I  give  bis  account 
in  an  abbreviated  form) : — 

The  monasteries  are  built  of  teak,  or,  sometimes  in  Mandalay  and 
Lower  Burma,  of  brick.  The  shape  is  always  oblong,  and  the 
inhabited  portion  is  I'aised  on  posts  and  pillars,  eight  or  ten  feet  above 
the  ground.  They  are,  like  all  the  other  houses  iu  the  country,  only 
one  story  high  ;  for  if  it  is  an  indignity  to  a  layman  to  have  anyone's 
feet  over  his  head',  it  is  much  more  so  to  a  member  of  the  brotherhood. 
The  space  between  the  ground  and  the  floor  is  always  kept  open,  and 
is  never  used  except  by  the  monastery  school-boys.  A  flight  of  steps 
of  stone  or  wood  leads  up  to  the  verandah,  which  extends  along  the 
north  and  south  sides,  and  frequently  all  round.  From  the  raised 
floor  thus  reached,  rises  the  building,  with  tier  upon  tier  of  massive 
roofs  (in  diminishing  stages),  giving  the  appearance  of  many  stories 
when  there  is  only  one.  The  accommodation  is  simple.  It  consists 
in  the  main  of  a  central  hall  divided  into  two  portions,  one  level  with 
the  verandah  where  the  scholars  are  taught,  and  most  of  the  duties  of 
the  monastery  carried  on,  and  the  other  a  dais,  raised  about  two  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  rest  of  the  building.  Seated  upon  this,  the 
monks  are  accustomed  to  receive  visitors,  and  at  the  back,  against  the 
wall,  are  arranged  the  images  of  Buddha,  a  large  one  usually  standing 
in  the  centre  on  a  kind  of  altar,  with  candles,  flowers,  praying  flags, 
and  other  offerings  placed  before  it.  On  shelves  alongside  are  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  figures  of  gold,  silver,  alabaster,  clay  or  wood,  according 
to  the  popularity  of  the  monastery,  and  the  religious  character  of  the 
neighbourhood.  Occasionally  there  are  dormitories  for  the  monks, 
but  as  a  rule  they  sleep  in  the  central  hall,  where  the  mats  which  form 
their  beds  may  be  seen  rolled  up  against  the  wall.  The  whole  area 
of  the  extensive  compound  in  which  the  monastery  stands  is  enclosed 


1  This  is  curiously  illustrated  in  a  recent  letter  from  a  resident  in 
Burma  to  the  Editor  of  the  Times  newspaper,  iu  which  it  is  stated  tliat 
about  six  months  after  King  Theebaw  had  been  deported,  some  of  his 
things  were  exhibited  by  us  in  the  lower  rooms  of  the  Rangoon 
Museum,  to  the  great  disgust  of  his  Burmese  admirers,  who  asked, 
'  how  we  dared  place  their  king's  things  iu  a  lower  room  where  people 
could  walk  above  them  ? ' 


432  MONASTERIES. 

by  a  heavy  teak  fence  with  massive  posts  and  rails,  seven  or  eight  feet 
high.  The  laity,  when  they  enter,  take  off  their  shoes  and  carry  them 
in  their  hands.     This  rule  applies  to  the  highest  in  the  land. 

The  daily  life  of  the  monks  inhabiting  monasteries 
of  this  kind  in  Burma  has  been  already  described  (see 
pp.  31 1-3 1 4  of  these  Lectures). 

If  we  now  j^ass  to  northern  Buddhist  countries  we 
shall  find  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  dwellings  of  monks 
are  insignificant  tenements  of  poor  construction,  attached 
to  or  built  round  small  chapels  or  shrines.  Sometimes 
the  monks  live  in  the  rooms  built  over  such  chapels. 

Sir  Eichard  Temple  (Journal,  ii.  207)  visited  a  so- 
called  monastery  at  Pemyangchi  (in  Sikkim),  which 
consisted  of  a  single  building  with  two  stories.  In  the 
upper  some  of  the  monks  resided,  and  a  chapel  formed 
the  lower. 

The  temple-monastery  I  myself  visited  in  British 
Sikkim,  near  Darjiling,  is  similar.  The  exterior  appear- 
ance might  be  compared  to  that  of  some  small  Dissent- 
ing chapel  in  an  English  village.  The  thatched  roof, 
which  once  gave  it  a  picturesque  appearance,  has  re- 
cently been  removed,  and  a  roof  of  modern  construction 
substituted.  The  shrine  or  temple  is  on  the  ground 
floor,  while  the  upper  floor  is  the  abode  of  the  attendant 
priests,  and  seems  also  to  serve  as  a  store-room  with 
cupboards  for  their  equipments.  The  contents  of  Ihe 
ground-floor  temple,  with  its  altar  at  the  further  end 
and  shelves  for  the  sacred  books  on  one  side,  are  very 
indistinctly  seen,  being  only  lighted  up  by  a  '  dim 
religious  light,'  when  the  door  is  kept  wide  open. 
I  noticed  three  images  on  the  altar. 


MONASTERY   OF  KILAXG   IN    LAIIUL.  433 

The  case  is  different  when  large  numbers  of  monks 
congregate  in  particular  places.  In  some  districts  of 
Ladak,  Mongolia  and  Tibet,  monasteries  (or  Lama- 
series as  they  are  sometimes  called)  have  been  erected, 
which  for  vastness,  magnificence,  and  grandeur  of  situ- 
ation amid  splendid  scenery,  are  unequalled  in  any 
part  of  the  world. 

According  to  strict  rule,  retired  localities  should  be 
chosen.  Hence  large  monastic  establishments  are  often 
found  in  solitary  places  ^  and  elevated  situations  ;  for 
instance,  in  Ladak  those  at  Lama  Yurru  and  Hemis  are 
more  than  1 1,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  that  at  Hanle  is 
1 4,000  feet.  They  resemble  romantic  castles  towering  up- 
wards in  the  midst  of  rocks,  crags,  and  snowy  mountains. 

Another  monastery  at  Kilang  (Kyelang),  in  the 
British  Tibetan  province  of  Lahul  (contiguous  to  La- 
dak), stands  on  the  spur  of  a  mountain,  at  an  elevation 
of  12, 000  feet,  and  is  approached  through  grand  ravines 
and  glaciers,  so  that  occasionally,  after  snow-storms, 
those  who  pass  to  and  fro  are  buried  in  avalanches. 

The  outer  walls  of  large  monasteries  of  this  kind  in 
secluded  situations  are  generally  lofty.  Often  they  are 
made  of  stone  or  brick,  plastered  with  mud  and  sur- 
mounted with  little  pinnacles  and  poles,  on  which  are 
prayer-flags.  Within  the  walls  are  cells  for  the  monks, 
the  abode  of  the  Head  or  Abbot,  a  room  for  holding 
books,  a  temple,  an  assembly-hall,  a  refectory,  store- 
houses,  receptacles    for    musical    instruments,    masks, 


^  It  is  for  this  reason  that  in  the  Tibetan  Language  they  are  called 
Gonpa. 

Ff 


434  MONASTERIES    AND   TEMPLES. 

staves,  etc.;  the  buildinofs  beino-  often  arransied  in  rows, 
and  always  intermixed  with  Stupas  (see  p,  504)  and 
monuments.  The  walls  of  the  vestibules  and  of  the 
great  hall  are  usually  ornamented  with  fresco-paint- 
ings, representing  subjects  from  the  Buddhist  Jatakas 
(p.  I T I ).  Generally  there  are  corridors  or  covered  cloisters 
lined  with  prayer- wheels,  or  open  walks  paved  with  stone, 
called  in  Sanskrit  Cankramana  (Pali,  Cankamana),  for 
the  monks  to  perambulate  up  and  down  in  meditation. 
These  are  supposed  to  be  constructed  after  the  pattern 
of  the  stone  walking-places  used  by  the  Buddha  himself 
(see  p.  400). 

In  the  monastery  at  Kilang  the  roof  of  the  great 
hall  is  supported  by  massive  beams  garnished  with  belts, 
swords,  yaks'  tails,  huge  and  terrible  masks,  and  all 
sorts  of  odds  and  ends.  On  one  side  is  a  huge  praying- 
wheel,  on  each  revolution  of  which  a  bell  is  struck. 
A  dim  subdued  light  pervades  the  entire  hall,  exaggerat- 
ing the  ghastly  hideoiisness  of  the  figures  ^ 

To  take  as  another  instance  —  the  monastery  or 
Lamasery  of  Kunbiun  (or  Kumbum)  north  of  Tibet, 
celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  Tseng  Khapa  (p.  277), 
and  situated,  according  to  M.  Hue,  on  a  mountain  inter- 
sected by  a  broad  and  deep  ravine  : — 

On  either  side  of  the  ravine,  and  up  the  slopes  of  the  mountain, 
rise,  in  amphitheatrical  curves,  the  white  dwellings  of  the  Lamas, 
each  with  its  little  terrace  and  enclosini;-  wall,  while  here  and  there 
above  them  '  tower  the  temples,  with  their  gilt  roofs  glittering  with 
a  thousand  colours.'  The  houses  of  the  superior  monks  are  distin- 
guished by  pennants,  floating  above  small  hexagonal  turi'ets,  while 

^  So  described  in  a  pamphlet  on  Buddhist  Monasteries  in  Lahoul,  by 
a  Moravian  Missionary. 


MONASTERY    OR   LAMASERY   OF   KUNBUM.  435 

those  of  the  ordinary  mouks  are  simple  cells.  On  all  sides  mystical 
sentences,  in  the  Tibetan  character,  meet  the  eye  (see  p.  381),  some 
inscribed  on  doors,  some  on  walls  and  stones,  or  on  linen  flags  fixed 
on  poles. 

Ahnost  everywhere  are  conical  vessels,  in  which  incense  and  odori- 
ferous wood  are  burning ;  while  numbers  of  Lamas  circulate  through 
the  streets  of  the  monastery  in  their  red  and  yellow  dresses — grave  in 
their  deportment,  and,  although  under  no  obligation  to  silence,  speak- 
ing little,  and  that  little  in  a  low  voice. 

This  Lamasery  of  Kunbum  enjoys  so  great  a  reputa- 
tion, that  the  worshippers  of  Buddha  make  pilgrimages 
to  it  from  all  parts  of  Mongolia,  Tartary,  and  Tibet,  and 
on  the  occasion  of  great  festivals  the  confluence  of  stran- 
gers is  immense.  It  is  much  frequented  by  Eastern 
Tibetans. 

Near  Kunbum  is  a  much  smaller  monastery,  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  medicine.  It  is  at  the  foot  of  a 
rocky  mountain,  on  the  heights  of  which  dwell  certain 
contemplative  monks.  M.  Hue  saw  one  of  these  hermits, 
who  never  communicated  with  the  outer  world  except 
for  food,  which  he  drew  up  to  his  rocky  cell  by  the  help 
of  a  bag  tied  to  a  long  rope  (ii.  y^). 

Some  mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  monasteries 
at  Kuku  khotun,  'the  blue  city'  in  Tartary.  That  town 
contains  no  less  than  five  great  Lamaseries  and  fifteen 
affiliated  monasteries,  with  a  giand  total  of  20,000 
Lamas  dwelling  in  them.  The  chief  monastery  is  that 
of  the  '  Five  Towers ' — not  to  be  confounded  with  one  of 
the  same  name  in  the  Chinese  province  of  Shan  si. 

This  latter  is  a  celebrated  place  for  burials  (see  p. 
370),  and  pilgrims  may  there  be  edified  by  a  sight  of 
the  Buddha's  shadow  impressed  on  a  rock. 

F  f  2 


436  MONASTERIES. 

Another  examj^le  of  a  monastery  in  a  remote  situation 
is  that  of  Kurun  or  Karen  (see  p.  295),  situated  on  the 
slope  of  a  mountain  in  Mongolia.  In  this  celebrated 
monastery  of  the  Grand  Lama  Taranatha  30,000  Lamas 
(according  to  M.  Hue)  are  lodged  and  supported. 

The  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  is  constantly  covered  with 
tents  of  various  sizes  for  the  convenience  of  j)ilgrims.  Hither  throng 
the  worshippers  of  Buddha  from  the  most  remote  countries. 

Viewed  from  a  distance,  the  white  cells  of  the  Lamas,  built  on  the 
declivity  in  horizontal  lines  one  above  the  other,  resemble  the  steps  of 
an  enormous  altar,  of  which  the  temple  of  the  Taranatha  Lama 
appears  to  constitute  (in  Roman  Catholic  phraseology)  'the  tabernacle.' 
In  this  country  Taranatha  is  the  saint  par  excellence,  and  there  is  not  a 
Tartar  Khalka  who  does  not  take  a  pride  in  calling  himself  his  disciple. 

Passing  on  now  to  Tibet,  we  find  that  in  its  principal 
provinces  the  number  of  monastic  institutions  connected 
with  its  two  respective  capitals  of  Lhassa  and  Taslii 
Lunpo,  is  more  than  a  thousand,  with  491,242  Lamas. 
This  is  the  estimate  of  the  latest  traveller  \ 

Accbrding  to  Hue,  more  than  thirty  large  monasteries 
may  be  reckoned  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lhassa  alone. 

Adverting  for  a  moment  to  Lhassa  itself,  we  may  note 
that  this  '  city  of  the  gods ' — the  chief  town  of  the 
province  of  U,  situated  on  the  Ki-dhu  river  ^ — had  in 
1854  about  15,000  inhabitants  within  a  circumference 
of  two-and-a-half  miles.  According  to  a  Chinese  proverb, 
its  chief  inmates  have  always  been  '  priests,  women,  and 
dogs.'  Koeppen  affirms  that  Lhassa  has  always  been  a 
greater  nest  of  monk-priests  than  Rome  has  ever  been. 


^  Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das   gives  the   names   of   1026   monasteries. 
Koeppen  makes  3000  monasteries  and  84,000  Lamas. 

^  A  small  river  flowing  into  the  Tsanpo  or  Brahma-putra. 


MONASTERIES    AT   LHASSA.        POTALA.  437 

Doubtless  its  population  is  now  increased,  and  in- 
cludes a  considerable  proportion  of  laymen  ;  yet,  in  all 
likelihood,  at  least  two-tliirds  of  the  inhabitants  are 
monks ;  and  it  cannot  be  too  often  repeated  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  true  theory  of  Buddhism,  the  only  raison 
d'etre  of  the  laity  is  to  wait  upon  the  monkhood. 

Moreover,  Lhassa,  next  to  Benares  and  Mecca,  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  frequented  place  of  pilgrimage  upon 
earth.  Scarcely  a  day  passes  on  which  the  streets  do 
not  overflow  with  crowds  of  pilgrims — some  from  every 
quarter  of  Tibet,  some  from  Bhutan  and  other  Himalayan 
regions,  some  from  all  parts  of  Mongolia.  All  meet  here 
to  worship  the  incarnated  representative  of  the  Bodhi- 
sattva  (Avalokitesvara)  manifested  in  the  Dalai  Lama 
— to  receive  his  blessing,  his  consecrated  pills,  and  his 
prayer-papers  (see  p.  331  of  these  Lectures).  The  re- 
sidence of  this  Lamistic  Pojdc  is  at  Potala. 

In  fact  Potala  on  the  north-west  side  of  Lhassa  is 
what  the  Vatican  is  to  Kome.  It  existed  in  ancient 
times  as  a  palace,  but  was  rebuilt  and  converted  into  a 
palace-monastery  by  the  celebrated  fifth  Dalai  Lama 
Navang  Lobsang,  a.d.  161 7-16S2  (p.  292  of  this  volume), 
and  from  that  time  forward  became  the  residence  of  all 
the  Dalai  Lamas,  who  had  before  lived  either  at  Sera 
or  at  Brepung  (Dapung,  see  p.  442). 

In  its  striking  and  unique  position,  it  is  even  more 
imposing  than  the  Vatican. 

Imagine  a  lofty  structure  erected  on  an  isolated  hilP, 


1   Tlie  hill  is  called  Potcala,  and  the  palace-mouastery  is  named  after 
it.     Koeppen  says  it  has  three  peaks,  but  the  illustration  in  Mark- 


438  MONASTERIES. 

rising  abruptly  from  the  plain  with  three  long  summits 
or  eminences, and  watered  at  the  base  by  the  Ki-chu  river, 
which  flows  into  the  great  Tsanpo.  The  south-western 
rido-e  is  the  so-called  Iron-hill,  on  which  is  a  monastery 
where  Tsong  Khapa  himself  is  said  to  have  taught. 
The  north-eastern  bears  the  name  of  the  Phagmo  hilli, 
while  the  highest  is  the  hill  of  Potala,  with  its  palace- 
monastery  towering  in  four  stories  to  the  height  of 
about  367  feet,  and  ending  in  a  cupola  covered  with 
plates  of  pure  gold. 

From  this  vantage  ground  the  incarnated  Bodhi- 
sattva  looks  down  on  the  crowds  of  pilgrims  ap- 
proaching to  worship  him,  or  kneeling  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill.  The  buildings  grouped  in  the  vicinity  are  said  to 
contain  10,000  rooms,  for  the  accommodation  of  as  many 
monks.  Countless  are  the  statues  of  Buddha,  with  other 
idols  and  images  of  saints,  not  to  mention  obelisks  and 
pyramidal  monuments,  which  meet  the  eye  everywhere. 
All  sacred  objects  are  manufactured  out  of  gold,  silver, 
or  copper,  according  to  the  wealth  of  those  who  have 
brought  them  as  offerings.  Two  ascending  avenues  lead 
up  from  Lhassa  to  Potala,  which  are  constantly  thronged 
with  foreign  pilgrims,  troops  of  Lamas  in  official  vest- 


ham's  account  of  Manning's  journey  (p.  256)  shows  three  long  summits 
rather  than  peaks.  The  hill  is  called  Buddha-la  by  Hue  (ii.  140),  but 
Koeppen  (ii.  341)  is  more  correct  in  stating  that  Potala  is  the  name  of 
a  sea-port  on  the  river  Indus,  called  Pattala  by  the  Greeks,  and  now 
Tatta.  There  is  a  tradition  that  this  Potala  was  the  original  home  of 
the  Sakya  tribe  (see  p.  2 1  of  this  volume). 

'  Koeppen  translates  this  by  the  German  sau,  but  says  it  may  also 
mean  '  Hinterc  Berer.' 


POTALA   THE    LAMISTIC    VATICAN. 


439 


merits,  higher  Lamas  and  courtiers  in  full  uniform.  Yet 
we  are  told  that  a  solemn  religious  silence  prevails, 
for  the  thoughts  of  all  are  fixed  in  meditation. 

I  have  already  given  an  abstract  of  Mr.  Sarat 
Chandra  Das'  narrative  of  his  visit  to  Potala,  and  his 
presentation  to  the  Dalai  Lama  on  June  lo,  1882  (see 
p.  331  of  these  Lectures).  I  now  add  an  account 
of  Mr.  Thomas  Manning's  interview  with  the  Dalai 
Lama  on  December  17,  181 1.  No  European,  except 
Mr.  Manning  \  has  ever  set  eyes  on  a  Dalai  Lama,  and 
no  other  Englishman  has  ever  seen  Lhassa  (for  M.  Hue 
was  misinformed  ;  Moorcroft  was  never  there) : — 

We  rode  to  the  foot  of  the  mountain  on  which  the  jxilace  is  built,  or 
out  of  which,  rather,  it  seems  to  grow ;  but  having  ascended  a  few 
paces  to  a  platform,  were  obliged  to  dismount.  From  here  to  the  hall 
where  the  Grand  Lama  receives  visitors  is  a  long  and  tedious  ascent. 
It  consists  of  about  fou.r  hundred  steins,  partly  stone  steps  in  the  rocky 
mountain,  and  the  rest  mere  ladders  from  story  to  story  in  the  palace. 
Besides  this,  from  interval  to  interval  along  the  mountain,  wherever 
the  ascent  is  easy,  there  are  stretches  interspersed,  where  the  path 
continues  for  several  paces  together  without  steps.  At  length  we 
arrived  at  the  large  platform  on  which  is  built  the  hall  of  reception. 
There  we  I'ested  awhile,  arranged  the  presents,  and  conferred  with  the 
Lama's  Chinese  interjDreter. 

The  Ti-mu-fu  was  in  the  hall  with  the  Grand  Lama.  I  was  not 
informed  of  this  until  I  entered,  which  occasioned  me  some  confusion. 
I  did  not  know  how  much  ceremony  to  go  through  with  one,  before 
I  began  with  the  other.  I  made  the  due  obeisance,  touching  the 
ground  three  times  with  my  head  to  the  Grand  Lfima,  and  once  to  the 
Ti-mu-fu.  I  presented  my  gifts,  delivering  the  coin  and  the  hand- 
some silk  scarf  with  my  own  hands  into  the  hands  of  the  Grand  Lama. 
I  then  took  off  my  hat,  and  humbly  gave  him  my  clean-shaven  head  to 

^  Messrs.  Hue  and  Gabet  failed  in  their  attempt  to  obtaiu  an  Inta-view 
with  the  Dalai  Lama  of  1846. 


440  MONASTERIES. 

lay  his  hands  upon.  The  ceremony  of  presentation  being  over,  the 
MunshI  and  I  sat  down  on  two  cushions  not  far  from  the  Lama's 
throne,  and  had  tea  brought  to  us.  It  was  most  excellent,  and 
I  meant  to  have  emptied  the  cup,  but  it  was  whipped  away  suddenly, 
before  I  was  aware  of  it.  The  Lama's  beautiful  and  interesting  face 
and  manner  engrossed  almost  all  my  attention.  He  was  at  that  time 
about  seven  years  old ;  and  had  the  simple  and  unaffected  manners  of 
a  well-educated  pi-incely  child.  His  face  was,  I  thought,  poetically 
and  affectingly  beautiful.  He  was  of  a  gay  and  cheerful  disposition  ; 
his  beautiful  mouth  perpetually  unbending  into  a  graceful  smile,  which 
illuminated  his  whole  countenance.  Sometimes,  particularly  when  he 
had  looked  at  me,  his  smile  approached  to  a  gentle  laugh.  No  doubt 
my  grim  beard  and  spectacles  somewhat  excited  his  risibility.  He 
inquired  whether  I  had  not  met  with  molestation  and  difficulties  on 
the  road  ;  to  which  I  promptly  returned  the  j)roper  answer.  A  present 
of  dried  fruit  was  brought  and  set  before  me,  and  then  we  withdrew. 
(!\Ir.  Clements  Markham's  Tibet,  p.  264,  abridged.) 

As  to  the  monasteries  grouped  around  this  Vatican 
of  Lamistic  Buddhism,  we  may  make  special  mention 
of  four,  noting  a  few  particulars. 

To  begin  with  the  oldest  monastery,  that  of  La 
hrang,  said  to  mean  '  abode  of  Lamas  ^,'  which  was  built 
by  King  Srong  Tsan  Gampo  (see  p.  271  of  this  volume), 
and  founded  in  the  seventh  century.  This  ancient 
institution  is  in  the  very  centre  of  Lhasta,  and  is  re- 
garded as  the  centre  of  the  whole  country.  All  the 
main  roads  of  Tibet  converge  towards  it.  Doubtless 
the  area  of  the  monastery  has  been  enlarged  by  occa- 
sional additions  in  the  course  of  one  thousand  years, 
but  not  since  it  was  partly  rebuilt  and  restored  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  Its  magnificent  temple  (Cho  Khang) 
is  the  St.  Peter's  of  Lamism  (see  p.  459). 


^  It  may  also  mean  temple  of  Lhassa  and  '  abode  of  gods,'  in  which 
case  La  would  be  for  Lha. 


LA   BKANG,  BAMOCHE,  GAE    MA   KHIAN,  GALDAN.    44 T 

The  immense  number  of  monks  inhabitinfr  this  mon- 
astery  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  a  huge  cauldron  is 
shown  whicli  holds  more  than  1200  gallons  of  tea  for 
the  Lamas  who  perform  the  daily  services. 

The  other  three  monasteries  near  Potala  and  La 
brang,  according  to  Koeppen,  are  devoted  to  the  study 
of  magic  and  the  art  of  exorcising.  We  may  take  them 
in  the  following  order  : — 

First,  at  a  short  distance  north  of  La  brang,  stands 
the  monastery  Bamoche,  '  the  great  enclosure,'  which 
was  the  other  ancient  monastery  built  by  Srong  Tsan 
Gampo,  or  by  one  of  his  wives  (see  p.  271).  It  is  now 
a  great  school  of  exorcism,  and  has  a  celebrated  temple 
(see  pp.  462,  463),  containing  the  celebrated  image  of 
the  Buddha,  and  also  one  of  Nanda,  Gautama's  step-bro- 
ther and  disciple.  Those  who  study  here  may  gain  the 
degree  of  '  Doctor  of  Magic' 

Next  comes  the  monastery  of  Mo7m  (or  Muru  or  Meru), 
close  to  the  city.  It  is  noted  for  its  order  and  cleanli- 
ness, and  for  its  jirinting-press.  Like  the  last,  it  con- 
tains a  school  for  instruction  in  magic. 

Then,  at  a  short  distance  east  of  La  brang  (according 
to  Koeppen),  is  the  monastery  of  Gar  Ma  Kliian — the 
mother  monastery  of  soothsayers,  fortune-tellers,  and 
exercisers  (Chos-kyong,  see  p.  266). 

Let  us  next  turn  to  the  three  ancient  'mother- 
monasteries  '  of  the  Yellow  sect — Galdan,  Sera,  and 
Dapung. 

Galdan  (or  Galidan),  the  'heaven  of  contented  beings' 
(Sanskrit  Tushita,  see  pp.  207,  213)— the  oldest  monas- 
tery of  the  Yellow  sect— is  situated  on  the  hill  of  the 


442       MONASTERIES  OF  YELLOW  SECT.      SEE  A,  DAPUNG. 

same  name,  about  thirty  miles  ^  east  of  Lhassa.  As 
already  stated  (pp.  278,  294),  it  was  founded  by  Tsong 
Khapa  a.d.  1409.  It  is  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  cir- 
cumference, and  has  3300  monks. 

Sera,  'the  golden/  founded  by  Tsong  Khapa  (p.  278), 
or  by  one  of  his  disciples  immediately  after  his  death, 
lies  about  three  miles  north  of  Lhassa,  on  a  declivity  of 
a  hill,  over  which  passes  the  road  leading  to  Mongolia. 
It  has  5500  monks,  and  numerous  temples,  towers, 
and  houses  curving  round  like  an  amphitheatre.  On 
the  hills  above  the  town  are  rows  of  cells  of  contem- 
plative monks  and  recluses. 

Sera  has  three  great  temples  several  stories  high, 
the  halls  of  which  are  richly  gilded.  In  one  temple 
the  staff  of  Gautama  Buddha  is  preserved. 

Bapung  (variously  Dapun,  Depung,  Debung,  Debang, 
Brepung,  Brebung,  Prebung),  'rice-heap,'  so  called  from 
the  shape  of  the  hill,  was  also  founded  by  Tsong  Khapii 
three  years  before  Sera,  and  is  situated  four  miles  west 
of  the  city  of  Lhassa.  It  has  7700  monks.  The  great 
temple  in  the  middle  is  surrounded  by  four  small  ones. 
One  of  these  four  belongs  to  the  exercisers  and  professors 
of  magical  arts,  of  whom  there  are  nearly  three  hundred. 
In  the  centre  of  the  monastery  is  a  residence  for  the 
Dalai  Lama,  when  he  pays  his  annual  visit.  Numbers 
of  foreigners  study  here,  especially  Mongolians.  In 
front  of  the  monastery  stands  a  Stupa,  which  contains 
the  bones  of  the  fourth  Dalai  Lama,  Jon  Tan  Yam  Thso, 
who  was  of  a  Monorolian  familv. 


^  Hue  says  'four  leagues;'  Koeppen  'drei  meilen,'  whicli  is  incorrect. 


CHEMILING,    KENDULING,    TASHI    LUNPO.  443 

Mr,  Edgar  (Report,  p.  41)  mentions  four  other  mon- 
asteries of  the  Yellow  sect  around  Lhassa,  Chemiling, 
Tengiling,  Chechiding,  and  Kendiding'^.  The  last  is 
said  to  be  the  residence  of  the  Eegent  (p.  286  of  these 
Lectures),  Sarat  Chandra  Das  gives  a  long  list  of  mon- 
asteries, some  containing  5000  monks  (e.g.  Enam  rgj'al 
grvatsang,  Gongdkar  rDorjegdan,  etc.)  and  some  7000. 

We  have  next  to  describe  the  great  monastery  of  the 
second  Grand  Lama  of  Tibetan  Buddhism — I  mean 
that  at  Taslii  LiinjJO,  also  belonging  to  the  Yellow 
sect. 

Taslii  Lunjpo,  near  Shigatse,  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment of  the  Tashi  Liima  or  Panchen  Lama  (see  p.  284 
of  these  Lectures),  and  the  second  metropolis  of  Lfi- 
mistic  Buddhism.  Our  knowledge  of  this  celebrated 
place  is  derived  from  the  record  of  the  journeys  of 
Mr.  Bogle  and  Captain  Turner,  as  well  as  from  the 
narratives  of  Lidian  explorers. 

According  to  some  of  these  authorities,  Tashi  Lunpo 
is  situated  about  140  English  miles  in  a  nearly 
westerly  direction  from  Lhassa.  It  is  built  on  a  level 
plain  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  rocky  hills,  through 
which  a  small  river  (the  Painam)  rushes  into  the  great 
Tsanpo  (Brahma-putra).  The  monastery  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  the  first  Dalai  Lama,  Gedun  grub  pa,  in 
1445  (see  p.  291  of  these  Lectures),  though  the  final 
seat  of  the  Dalai  Liimas  was  at  Lhassa. 

According   to   Koeppen   four   roads   meet   at  Tashi 

^  These  are  also  mentioned  by  Sarat  Chandra  Das  and  by  Markham 
(p.  130,  note  3),  and  again,  differently  spelt,  at  p.  264,  note  i. 


444  TASHI    LUNPO    MONASTEEY.       SHIGATSE. 

LuDpo  ;  one  leading  to  Lhassa,  one  to  Ladak,  one  to 
Nepill,  and  one  to  Bhutan. 

Near  at  hand,  on  the  north-east  side  of  the  TashiLunpo 
monastery,  on  a  rocky  eminence  protecting  it  from  the 
cold  winds,  stands  the  fort  of  Shigatse  (also  written 
Shigatze),  which,  with  its  surrounding  houses,  forms 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Tsang,  just  as  Lhassa 
constitutes  that  of  the  province  of  U. 

Our  fellow  countryman,  Mr.  Bogle,  commissioned  by 
Warren  Hastings  to  open  communications  between 
Bengal  and  Tibet,  arrived  at  Tashi  Lunpo  in  1774. 
His  description  of  it  is  to  the  following  effect.  I  give 
it  abbreviated  (from  Mr.  Clements  Markham's  Tibet): — 

"We  passed  by  the  foot  of  Tashi  Lunpo,  which  is  built  on  the  lower 
declivity  of  a  steep  hill.  The  roof  of  the  palace  is  all  of  copper-gilt. 
The  building  is  of  dark-coloured  brick.  The  houses  of  the  town  rise 
one  above  another.  Four  churches  with  gilt  ornaments  are  mixed 
with  them.  Altogether  the  town  presents  a  princely  appearance. 
Many  of  the  courts  are  spacious,  flagged  with  stone,  and  have  galleries 
running  round  them.  The  alleys,  which  are  likewise  paved,  are 
narrow.  The  palace  is  appropriated  to  the  Lama  and  his  ofiicers, 
to  temples,  gi'anaries,  warehouses,  etc.  The  rest  of  the  town  is 
entirely  inhabited  by  priests,  who  are  in  number  about  four  thousand. 

The  following  is  the  substance  of  Mr.  Bogle's  account 
of  his  interview  with  the  Tashi  Lama  on  November  8, 
1774  (abbreviated  from  Markham's  Tibet) : — 

In  the  afternoon  I  had  my  first  audience  of  the  Tashi  Lama.  He 
is  about  forty  years  of  age,  of  low  stature,  and  inclining  to  be  fat.  His 
complexion  is  fairer  than  that  of  most  Tibetans,  and  his  arms  are  as 
white  as  those  of  a  European  ;  his  hair,  which  is  jet  black,  is  cut  very 
short ;  his  eyes  are  small  and  black.  The  expression  of  his  counte- 
nance is  smiling  and  good-humoured.     He  was  upon  his  throne,  formed 


TASHI  LAMA  AT  TASHI  LUXrO.         445 

of  wood  carved  and  gilt,  with  some  cushions  ahove  it,  upon  which  he 
a^^atwith  his  legs  folded  under  him.  He  was  dressed  in  a  mitre-shaped 
cap  of  yellow  broadcloth,  with  long  bars  lined  with  red  satin,  a  yellow 
cloth  jacket  without  sleeves,  and  a  satin  mantle  of  the  same  colour 
thrown  over  his  shoulders.  On  one  side  of  h:m  stood  his  physician, 
with  a  bundle  of  perfumed  sandal-wood  rods  burning  in  his  hand  ;  on 
the  other  stood  his  cup-bearer.  I  laid  the  Governor's  presents  before 
him,  delivering  the  letter  and  the  pearl  necklace  into  his  own  hands, 
together  with  a  white  handkerchief  on  my  own  part,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  country.  He  received  me  in  the  most  engaging 
manner.  I  was  seated  on  a  high  stool  covered  with  a  carpet.  Plates 
of  boiled  mutton,  boiled  rice,  dried  fruits,  sweetmeats,  sugar,  bundles 
of  tea,  dried  sheep's  carcases,  etc.,  were  set  before  me  and  my  com- 
panion, Mr.  Hamilton.  The  Lama  drank  two  or  three  dishes  of  tea 
with  us,  but  without  saying  any  grace,  asked  us  once  or  twice  to  eat, 
and  on  our  i-etiring  threw  white  handkerchiefs  over  our  necks.  After 
two  or  three  visits,  he  used  to  receive  me  without  any  ceremony,  his 
head  uncovered,  and  dressed  only  in  the  large  red  petticoat  worn  by 
all  full  monks,  red  boots,  a  yellow  cloth  vest,  with  his  arms  bare,  and 
a  piece  of  coarse  yellow  cloth  thrown  across  his  shoulders.  He  sat 
sometimes  in  a  chair,  sometimes  on  a  bench  covered  with  tigei'-skins, 
and  nobody  but  the  cup-bearer  present.  Sometimes  he  would  walk 
with  me  about  the  room,  explain  the  pictures,  or  make  some  remarks 
upon  the  colovir  of  my  eyes,  etc.  For,  although  venerated  as  God's 
vicegerent  through  all  the  eastern  countries  of  Asia,  and  endowed 
with  a  portion  of  omniscience  and  with  many  other  divine  attributes, 
he  throws  aside  in  conversation  all  the  awful  part  of  his  charactei-, 
accommodates  himself  to  the  weakness  of  mortals,  endeavours  to  make 
himself  loved  rather  than  feared,  and  behaves  Avith  the  greatest 
affability  to  everybody,  particularly  to  strangers. 

In  1783,  when  Tasbi  Lunpo  was  visited  by  Captain 
Turner,  the  monastery  consisted  of  400  liouses,  many  of 
which  were  built  of  stone  and  marble,  and  at  least  two 
stories  high.  They  contained  about  3700  monks  (now 
3800).  Around  the  houses  were  gilded  temples,  pin- 
nacles, pyramidal  monuments  (Stupas),  and  above  all  the 
palace  of  the  Tashi  Lama,  forming  a  striking  spectacle. 


446  MONASTEEIES. 

Captain  Turner  had  a  remarkable  interview  with  the 
Grand  Lama  at  the  neighbouring  monastery  of  Terpa- 
ling,  on  December  4,  1783.  He  found  the  princely 
child,  then  aged  eighteen  months,  seated  on  a  throne, 
witli  his  father  and  mother  standing  on  the  left  hand. 
Having  been  informed  that,  although  unable  to  speak, 
he  could  understand,  Captain  Turner  intimated  to  him 
'  that  the  Governor-General,  on  receiving  news  of  his 
decease,  had  been  overwhelmed  with  sorrow,  and  con- 
tinued to  lamert  his  absence  from  the  world  until  the 
cloud  was  dispelled  by  his  re-appearance.  The  Governor 
hoped  that  h(  might  long  continue  to  ilkunine  the 
world  by  his  presence.' 

The  infant  looked  steadfastly  at  the  British  envoy, 
and  appeared  to  be  listening  to  his  words  with  deep 
attention,  while  he  repeatedly  nodded  his  head,  as  if  he 
understood  every  syllable.  He  was  silent  and  sedate, 
and  conducted  -limself  with  astonishing  dignity.  Captain 
Turner  thought  him  one  of  the  handsomest  children  he 
had  ever  seen.  It  seems  that  he  grew  up  to  be  an  able 
and  devout  ruler,  gratifying  the  Tibetans  by  his  presence 
for  many  years,  and  living  to  a  good  old  age. 

Tashi  Lunpo  was  not  visited  by  the  French  mis- 
sionaries, but  M.  Hue  informs  us  (ii.  157)  that  in  1S46 
the  then  Panchen  Lama  was  60  years  of  age,  and  still 
vigorous.  M.  Hue  was  told  that  he  was  of  Indian 
origin,  and  that  he  had  declared  of  himself  that  his  first 
incarnation  had  taken  place  in  India  some  thousands  of 
years  before. 

Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das,  from  whose  notes  of  a  journey 
in  Tibet  so  many  extracts  have  been  already   given, 


MOXASTEEY  AT  TASHI  LUNPO.         447 

writes  thus  of  his  arrival  at  Tashi  Lunpo  on  the  Qtli  of 
December,  1881  (the  extract  is  not  given  literally,  and 
is  abbreviated) : — 

In  the  afternoon  we  arrived  at  Tashi  Liinpo.  Tn  front  of  the 
western  entrance  I  noticed  two  Chorteus  (that  is,  '  (Jaityas  or  Stfipas,' 
see  p.  504  of  these  Lectures),  one  very  large,  with  a  gilt  sjiiie,  and  the 
other  small.  On  entering  the  grand  monastery,  I  mustered  all  my 
knowledge  of  Buddhist  ceremonies  and  monkish  eti([netto,  that  I  might 
not  he  criticised  by  the  passing  monks  as  one  unacquainted  with  the 
duties  of  the  wearers  of  the  sacred  costume.  I  walked  slowly  and 
with  gravity,  hut  secretly  observing  everything  'around  me.  There 
were  a  few  yaks  under  the  charge  of  three  or  foui-  Jierdsmen,  waiting 
probably  for  the  return  of  some  of  their  numbeu  from  within  the 
mouasteiy.  Some  monks,  riding  on  mules,  j^assed  us  from  north  to 
south.  A  few  parties  with  heavy  grain  packages  on  their  backs  were 
entering  the  monastery  along  with  us.  The  rj\ys  of  the  sun,  now 
slanting  on  the  gilded  spires  of  houses  and  tombs  in  the  monastery, 
presented  a  very  magnificent  view  to  the  eye. 

While  residing  in  the  monastery  I  saw  people  busily  engaged  in 
out-door  work,  such  as  collecting  fuel  and  tending'  cattle.  In  fact, 
this  was  the  busiest  part  of  the  year,  when  the  Tibetans  remain  on  the 
move  for  the  purpose  of  buying  and  selling,  at  a  time  when  the 
intensely  cold  winds  v.ither  up  the  vegetation,  freeze  the  streams, 
harden  the  soil,  and  dry  up  the  skin.  The  monks,  like  the  lay-people, 
are  remarkable  for  their  habit  of  early  rising.  No  monk  within  the 
walls  of  the  monastery  rose  later  than  five  in  the  morning,  and  the 
usual  time  for  getting  up  was  four  a.m.  Those  who  slept  later,  with- 
out any  special  cause,  were  subject  to  correction.  At  tlnve  in  the 
morning  the  great  trumpet  summons  all  the  monks  to  the  religious 
service  in  the  congregation  hall.  Whoever  fails  to  attend  is  punished 
next  morning.  No  register  is  kept,  yet  the  officer  who  superintends 
the  discipline  can  tell  what  monk  out  of  two  thousand  has  absented 
himself  on  any  particular  day.  I  was  the  only  man  who  slept  up  to 
six  in  the  morning.  The  monks  used  often  to  remark  that,  were 
I  a  regular  monk  of  the  monastery,  the  superintendent's  birch  would 
have  stript  my  body  of  its  flesh. 

About  six  miles  from  Tashi  Lunpo,  and  on  the  road 


448  MONASTERIES. 

leading  from  it  in  a  south-westerly  direction  towards  the 
monastery  of  Sakya  (see  below),  is  the  monastery  of 
Narthang,  whence  issued  one  of  the  three  copies  of  the 
Kanjur  (p.  272)  brought  to  Europe  by  Brian  Hodgson. 

We  have  now  to  notice  the  two  most  important 
monasteries  of  the  Ked  sect. 

First,  Sam  ye  (Sam  vas)  is  on  the  great  river  Tsanpo, 
about  forty  miles  from  Lhassa,  in  a  south-easterly  direc- 
tion. It  was  the  first  monastery  founded  in  the  eighth 
century  by  Padma-sambhava,  after  King  Khri  Srong 
De  Tsan's  restoration  of  Buddhism  (pp.  271,  272). 
It  is  the  metropolitan  monastery  of  the  Ked-capped 
monks  and  Urgyanpa  sect.  Sam  ye  was  visited  by 
the  Indian  explorer  Nain  Singh  in  1874,  on  his  final 
journey  to  Lhassa  \  and  by  Sarat  Chandra  Das  in  1882. 
Many  of  its  images  are  of  gold,  and  it  possesses  an 
extensive  library.  Padma-sambljava  was  a  master  of 
Indian  YoQ^a  and  mao;ic.  He  is  fabled  to  have  worked 
many  miracles — such  as  filling  empty  jars  with  divine 
water — at  Sam  ye.  He  undertook  to  expel  all  evil 
demons  from  Tibet,  but  was  opposed  by  the  Bon  priests. 

The  other  chief  monastery  of  the  Eed  sect  is  that  of 
Sakya  (Saskya),  situated  about  fifty-five  miles  from 
Tashi  Lunpo,  on  the  road  leading  in  a  south-westerly 
direction  towards  Nepfd.  It  has  four  great  sanctuaries 
and  a  celebrated  library,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  large 
town,  with  temples  and  houses  mostly  painted  red 
(P-  273). 

^  For  his  services  as  an  explorer  and  surveyor  Nain  Siugli  enjoys 
a  Government  pension,  and  lias  been  awarded  the  gold  medal  of  the 
Geographical  Society.     Sarat  Chandra  Das  has  been  made  a  CLE. 


TEMPLES. 


449 


It  should  be  noted  that  in  all  the  large  monasteries 
of  Northern  Buddhist  countries,  varied  assortments  of 
vestments,  robes,  costumes,  and  masks  are  kept  for  use 
in  the  religious  dances,  masquerades,  and  dramatic  per- 
formances which  are  a  characteristic  of  Northern  Bud- 
dhism. Indeed,  some  of  the  richer  monasteries  possess 
extensive  wardrobes  of  great  value,  and  the  monks  in 
their  masquerading  dances  change  their  costumes  very 
frequently  and  with  great  rapidity  (see  pp.  347-350). 

Note,  too,  that  the  libraries  of  such  monasteries  gene- 
rally contain  large  and  valuable  collections  of  books. 
The  108  volumes  of  the  northern  canon  called  Kanjur, 
with  the  commentaries  called  Tanjur  (see  p.  272),  con- 
stitute a  library  in  themselves.  In  addition  to  these, 
there  are  vast  numbers  of  other  treatises  written  to 
elucidate  the  mysteries  of  Northern  Buddhism,  most  of 
which  are  still  a  terra  incognita  to  European  scholars. 
It  is  well  known  that  in  medioeval  times  some  Buddhist 
monasteries  became  seats  of  learning,  which  might  have 
vied  with  the  most  learned  Universities  established  at 
that  period  in  Europe. 

Temples. 

Although  temples  have  been  already  adverted  to  as 
forming  an  important  feature  in  all  monasteries,  and 
often  an  actual  part  of  the  edifice  constituting  the 
monastery ;  it  will  be  worth  while  to  devote  a  short 
space  of  time  to  their  separate  consideration. 

In  the  earliest  days  of  Buddhism  neither  temples  nor 

halls  nor  rooms  for  meeting  together  (sangha-griha)  were 

much  needed.     The  monk  recited  the  Law  in  the  open 

air  or  in  the  houses  of  the  laity.     It  was  only  when 

t  Gg 


450  OLD    CAVE    TEMPLES    OR    CAITYAS. 

collections  of  monks  crystallized  into  regularly  organized 
communities,  and  a  kind  of  congregational  recitation  of 
the  Law  became  a  part  of  every  clay's  duty,  that  the 
monks  required  places  of  assembly  like  churches  for  the 
performance  of  religious  services. 

Such  places  of  meeting  were  often,  like  the  cells  for 
the  monks,  excavated  out  of  rocks.  And,  since  relic- 
shrines  called  Caityas  (as  well  as  Stupas,  see  p.  504) 
were  erected  at  the  further  extremity  of  the  excavated 
hall,  the  hall  itself  was  generally  called  a  Caitya. 

The  two  principal  rock-excavated  Caitya-halls  visited 
by  me  were  at  Elora  (also  spelt  EUora  and  Elura)  and 
-at  Karle  (Karli),  I  was  also  much  interested  in  a  smaller 
one  at  the  Nasik  caves.  In  their  interior  structure  thev 
are  all  strikingly  like  ancient  Christian  churches. 

The  Elord  Caitya  forms  one  of  the  series  of  caves 
already  mentioned  (p.  169).  It  is  probably  as  old  as 
the  sixth  century  of  our  era,  and  is  of  an  elongated  horse- 
shoe shape,  with  a  massive  ribbed  roof  arched  like  that 
of  a  cathedral,  supported  on  twenty-eight  octagonal 
columns,  over  which  runs  a  curious  frieze,  bavins;  on  it  a 
carved  representation  of  a  buffalo-hunt  and  boar-chase. 
There  is  a  nave  with  side-aisles  about  86  feet  long  by 
43  broad.  Moreover,  over  the  entrance,  supported  by 
two  square  columns,  is  a  gallery  which  may  have  served 
for  a  choir  or  for  a  band  of  musicians.  A  lofty  solid 
Dagaba,  in  shape  like  a  massive  dome  resting  on  a 
cylindrical  base,  stands  at  the  further  end  of  the  nave, 
the  aisles  being  continued  round  it,  so  that  worshippers 
may  circumambulate  the  apse.  The  front  of  this  im- 
mense relic-receptacle  is  hollowed  out  to  receive  a  colossal 


CAVE   TEMPLES    AT   ELORA   AND   KABLE.  45 1 

sedent  figure  of  the  Buddha,  about  1 7  feet  high  \  with 
the  Bodhi-tree  carved  in  an  arch  above  his  head.  Two 
images  of  attendants  are  in  an  erect  attitude,  one  on 
each  side,  but  are  not  so  prominent  as  to  draw  off  the 
eye  from  the  immense  central  figure. 

The  Brahmans  have  now  appropriated  this  cave,  and 
dedicated  it  to  Visva-karma,  the  supposed  patron  deity 
of  builders  and  carpenters.  I  was  told  that  carpenters 
come  from  all  parts  of  the  country  to  worship  the  image 
in  its  Brahmanical  character.  As  a  token  of  honour, 
they  smear  it  with  red  paint. 

I  noticed  a  remarkable  sculpture  carved  out  of  the 
rock  near  this  cave-temple.  It  represented  worshippers 
praying  to  Padma-pani  to  be  delivered  from  fire,  from 
sword,  from  captivity,  from  wild  beasts,  from  snakes,  and 
from  the  skeleton  Death  who  is  seen  approaching. 

The  Caitya  cave  at  lidrle,  near  Poona,  which  I  visited 
in  1876,  is  in  all  its  dimensions  and  arrangements 
similar  to  the  Visva-karma  cave  at  Elora,  but  is  still 
larger,  finer,  and  more  imposing.  It  has  a  nave  and 
side  aisles,  terminating  in  an  apse,  round  which  the  aisle 
is  carried.  The  whole  is  about  124  feet  long  by  45 J 
feet  broad  and  46  feet  in  height.  There  are  fifteen 
pillars  on  each  side,  separating  the  nave  from  the  aisles, 
and  under  the  dome  of  the  apse  is  the  Dagaba  (or 
Caitya) — a  two-storied  cylindrical  drum,  surmounted  by 
a  Tee  ornament  (p.  456),  on  which  is  a  wooden  umbrella. 
There  is  a  cavity  in  the  Dagaba  for  relics,  though  none 
are  now  to  be  found  there. 


^  My  authority  for  all  these  details  is  Dr.  Burgess'  Report 


452  CAVE  TEMPLE  AT  KARLE. 

This  wonderful  excavation  at  Karle  is  one  of  tlie 
most  magnificent  monuments  of  ancient  Buddliism,  and 
one  of  the  most  interesting  examples  of  early  Buddhistic 
art  to  be  seen  anywhere  in  India.  And,  more  than  this, 
it  is  probably  one  of  the  most  striking  places  of  con- 
gregational worship  to  be  seen  anywhere  in  the  world. 

Of  course  these  rock-excavated  churches  soon  de- 
veloped into  temples  (Viharas)  built  of  stone  or  brick, 
some  of  which  were  of  a  monumental  character,  like 
that  at  Buddha-Gaya,  already  described  (see  p.  390), 
while  others  vt^ere  unpretending  structures  near  vil- 
lages, where  the  laity  could  repeat  their  prayers  or  make 
offerings.  Others,  again,  formed  the  most  important 
edifice  among  the  group  of  buildings  constituting  a 
monastery. 

The  village  temples  might  more  suitably  be  called 
chapels.  All  have  some  features  in  common.  At  the 
further  end  of  a  dimly-lighted  room  is  an  altar  of  stone 
or  wood.  On  this  are  placed  the  idols,  and  around  them 
are  arranged  vases  and  cups,  in  which  the  offerings  of  the 
laity  are  deposited.  The  larger  edifices  have  vestibules, 
and  at  the  entrance  are  generally  rude  images  of  the 
four  great  kings  (p.  206),  who  are  supposed  to  be  the 
guardians  of  Buddhism  (p.  206),  while  inside  there  are 
sculptures,  frescoes,  and  pictures  illustrative  of  the 
various  births  and  transmigrations  of  the  Buddhas  and 
Bodhi-sattvas.  In  the  precincts  is  always  to  be  found  a 
Bodhi-tree  (Bo-tree,  p.  519),  if  the  climate  and  soil  will 
admit  of  its  being  reared.  The  greater  number  of 
sacred  structures,  however,  even  those  of  a  more  import- 
ant kind  and  more  entitled  to  be  called  temples,  are 


TEMPLES  IN  CEYLON.   KELANI.         453 

mere  square  or  oblong  rectangular  buildings,  without 
architectural  design  or  ornamentation. 

In  Ceylon  I  visited  a  temple  of  this  kind  on  the  shore 
of  the  Kandy  lake.  It  consisted  of  a  large  bare  room  or 
small  hall,  at  the  further  end  of  which  was  a  curtain 
concealing  a  highly  venerated  image  of  the  Buddha. 
The  attendant  drew  aside  the  curtain  and  showed  us 
the  image,  which  had  representations  of  rays  of  light 
issuing  from  all  parts  of  his  body,  as  well  as  five  rays 
emerging  from  the  crowni  of  his  head.  In  the  enclosure 
or  '  compound  '  of  the  temple,  was  a  bell-shaped  Dagaba 
or  relic-shiine  of  solid  brick- work,  covered  with  Chunam, 
and  having  a  receptacle  for  lights  in  front  of  it.  Close 
at  hand  was  the  usual  sacred  Pipal-tree. 

At  Kelani,  about  eight  miles  from  Colombo,  is  a  larger 
and  much  more  important  temple  which  I  also  visited. 
Those  who  make  pilgrimages  to  this  temple  gain  great 
stores  of  merit.  It  contains  a  colossal  recumbent  image 
of  the  Buddha,  thirty-six  feet  long,  lying  on  his  right 
side,  and  representing  the  founder  of  Buddhism  when 
about  to  pass  into  Pari-nirvana  (see  p.  50).  The  image 
is  protected  by  a  screen,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a 
figure  of  the  King  of  Serpents,  while  at  the  sides  are 
gigantic  images  of  the  temple-guardians.  Around  the 
interior  are  fresco  paintings  of  various  incidents  in  the 
previous  lives  of  the  Buddha.  There  are  also  images  of 
the  Hindu  gods  Vishnu,  Siva,  and  Ganesa  (see  p.  206). 
In  the  garden  of  the  temple  are  residences  for  the  monks, 
a  cloister-like  enclosure,  a  room  with  a  good  printing 
press,  and  an  immense  Pipal-tree. 

A  still  more   important  temple  is  that   called   the 


454  TOOTH-TEMPLE    IN   CEYLON. 

Dalada  Mfiligawa  or  temple  of  the  sacred  eye-tooth,  at 
Kandy  in  Ceylon.  This  is  a  very  picturesque  structure, 
situated  on  the  margin  of  the  lake  close  to  the  towD. 
It  has  no  surrounding  walls,  and  is  easily  accessible  to 
all  comers.  Steps  lead  up  to  a  kind  of  open  corridor, 
in  which  is  the  main  entrance,  and  the  walls  of  which 
are  decorated  with  coloured  frescoes  of  the  eight  princi- 
pal hells — the  supposed  abode  of  evil-doers  undergoing 
purgatorial  torments  during  one  of  their  states  of  exist- 
ence (see  p.  i2o)^ 

Some  are  represented  in  the  act  of  being  cut  in  pieces 
by  demons,  or  fixed  on  red-hot  iron  spikes,  or  torn 
asunder  with  glowing  tongs,  or  sawn  in  two  with  saws, 
or  crushed  between  rocks,  or  consumed  by  flames  enter- 
ing the  apertures  of  their  bodies.  The  European  visitor 
inquires  with  amazement  how  it  is  that  a  system  so 
mild,  merciful,  and  tolerant,  should  have  invented  the 
horrible  tortures  here  exhibited.  The  explanation  is 
not  difficult,  and  his  astonishment  ceases  when  he  is 
reminded  that  Buddhism,  recognizing  no  moral  Governor 
of  the  Universe,  is  compelled  to  resort  to  such  artifices 
for  the  coercion  and  intimidation  of  evil-doers. 

In  the  interior  of  the  building  is  the  shrine,  in  which 
is  preserved  behind  iron  bars,  the  golden  Dagaba  or 
receptacle  of  one  of  the  Buddha's  eye-teeth  (see  p.  500). 
On  each  side  are  images,  and  when  I  visited  the  shrine, 
the  whole  chamber  was  redolent  with  the  fragrance  of 
masses  of  flowers — chiefly  jasmine — recently  deposited 
b(ifore  them  as  offering's. 


*  Copies  of  these  were  made  for  me  by  a  Sinhalese  artist. 


TEMPLE-LIBRARY.      BURMESE    TEMPLES.  455 

Behind  the  building  I  found  an  open  quadrangle  with 
cells  for  the  monks,  and  a  residence  for  the  Head  of  the 
monastery.  Not  far  from  the  entrance  was  a  spacious 
library,  where  I  was  greeted  by  a  number  of  youthful 
monks,  dressed  in  simple  toga-like  vestments,  but  with 
their  right  shoulders  left  bare.  Some  were  eno-apfed  in 
writing.  I  therefore  asked  for  a  specimen  of  their  pen- 
manship. Upon  which  they  wrote  down  for  me  on  palm 
leaves,  in  the  Sinhalese  character,  forty-eight  epithets 
of  the  Buddha,  such  as  the  following: — God  of  the  gods, 
Indra  of  Indras,  Brahma  of  Brahmas,  the  Almighty, 
Omniscient,  Existing  in  his  own  Law,  Lord  of  the  Law, 
Saviour  of  all,  Conqueror,  King  of  doctrine.  Ocean  of 
grace,  Treasury,  Jewel,  Sun,  Moon,  Stars,  Lotus,  Am- 
brosia of  the  World,  the  Five-eyed  one,  the  Bull, 
Elephant,  Lion  among  men,  stronger  than  the  strongest, 
mightier  than  the  mightiest,  more  merciful  than  the 
most  merciful,  more  meritorious  than  the  most  meri- 
torious, more  beautiful  than  the  most  beautiful,  etc. 

The  temples  in  Burma  are  commonly  called '  pagodas,' 
a  word  corrupted  from  the  Pali  Dagaba  (Sanskrit 
Dhatu-garbha),  '  receptacle  of  the  (sacred)  elements '  or 
relics  of  the  body.  They  are  also  called  Dagohn.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Scott  ('Burman,'  i.  184),  the  number  of 
temples  in  Burma  far  exceeds  those  in  Ceylon  or  Tibet 
or  China.  No  village  so  poor  as  to  be  without  its 
'neatly  kept  shrine,  with  the  remains  of  others 
mouldering  away  around  it ;  no  hill  so  steep  as  to  be 
without  its  glittering  gold  or  snow-white  spire  rising 
up  to  guard  the  place  ;  no  work  of  merit  so  richly  paid 
as  the  building  of  a  pagoda.'     Some  are  of  simple  con- 


456  TEMPLES   IN    BURMA.       RANGOON   PAGODA. 

struction,  others  elaborate ;  but  of  all  tlie  temples  the 
great  Eangoon  pagoda  is  the  grandest  and  most  crowded 
with  worshippers  and  pilgrims. 

The  peculiar  sacredness  and  popularity  of  this  won- 
derful structure  (said  to  have  been  founded  588  B.C.), 
arises   from  its  containing  relics  of  Gautama  and  his 
three  predecessors,  that  is,  eight  hairs  from  Gautama's 
head,  the  staff  of  Kasyapa,  the  robe  of  Kanaka-muni, 
and  the  drinking-cup  of  Kraku-cdhanda  (see  p.  135  of 
these  Lectures).      The  stately  pile  stands  upon  a  mound. 
— partly  natural,  partly  artificial — cut  into  two   rect- 
angular teiTaces  one  above  the  other,  the  upper  being 
166  feet  above  the  ground,  and  each  side  facing  one  of 
the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass.     The  ascent  is  by  very 
dilapidated  steps,  some  of  stone,  some  of 'sun-dried  bricks, 
worn  almost  into  a  slope  by  the  bare  feet  of  myriads  of 
worshippers.'       None  but  Europeans  may  ascend  with 
covered  feet.     The  stairs  lead  to  a  '  broad,  open  flagged 
space,  which  runs  all  round  the  jDagoda,  and  is  left  free 
for  worshippers.'     From  the  centre  of  this  springs,  from 
an    octagonal   plinth,    the    '  profusely   gilt   solid   hrick 
pagoda,'  which  has   a  circumference  of  1355  feet,  and 
rises  to  a  height  of  about  328,  'or  nearly  as  high  as 
St.  Paul's  cathedral.'      On   the  summit  is   'the  Tee,' 
a  gilt  umbrella-shaped    ornament  w4th    many  tiers    of 
rings,  on  each  of  which  '  hang  multitudes  of  gold  and 
silver  jewelled  bells.'     It  was  '  placed  there  at  a  cost 
of  not  much  less  than  £50,000  ^'      At  the  foot  of  the 
pagoda  are  four  chapels,  having  colossal  figures  of  Buddha 


'   In  this  description  I  have  chiefly  followed  Mr.  Scott. 


TEMPLES   IN    SIKKIM.  457 

at  the  sides,  and  their  gilded  interiors  darkened  by 
the  vapour  of  thousands  of  burning  tapers.  '  Hundreds 
of  Gautamas/  large  and  small,  white  and  black,  gilded 
and  plain,  sitting,  standing,  and  reclining,  surround 
the  larger  images.  It  is  said  that  the  great  pagoda 
has  been  thrice  covered  with  gold-leaf. 

There  is  a  still  higher  pagoda  (332  feet  high)  at 
Pegu,  and  the  most  ancient  of  all  is  at  Arakan. 

Passing  to  Northern  Buddhist  countries,  we  find  that 
the  temples  are  generally  simple,  and  not  to  be  com- 
pared with  the  grand  pagodas  of  Burma. 

For  example,  at  Tassiding  in  Sikkim,  Sir  Pilchard 
Temple  (Journal,  ii.  204)  found  that  the  two  principal 
temples  were  chapel-like  structures  with  '  overshadow- 
ing umbrella-shaped  roofs,  thatched  with  split  bamboos.' 
The  walls  were  of  rough  stone,  the  upper  half  being 
painted  red.  The  interiors,  which  were  dimly  lighted, 
had  two  stories,  the  walls  being  covered  with  coloured 
frescoes  illustrating  the  punishments  in  the  various 
hells,  '  some  of  which  would  be  suitable  for  illustrations 
of  Dante's  Inferno.'  The  ends  opposite  to  the  entrance 
were  filled  with  images.  In  other  parts  of  the  chapels 
were  praying-machines,  and  on  shelves  the  remnants  of 
a  Hbrary  of  sacred  Buddhist  manuscripts.  Sir  Richard 
attended  a  religious  service  in  one  of  these  chapels, 
which  consisted  of  a  series  of  chants  and  invocations 
to  a  female  demon  called  Tanma,  represented  by  a 
hideous  lay  figure  dressed  in  robes.  According  to 
tradition,  it  was  the  malevolent  action  of  the  twelve 
Tanmas  in  bringing  pestilences  on  the  Tibetans,  that 
led  them  to  send  for  Padma-sambhava,  who  introduced 


458  TEMPLES    IN   MONGOLIA    AND   TIBET. 

the  debased  Buddhism  subsequently  prevalent  in  Tibet 
(Note  by  Capt.  R.  C.  Temple). 

According  to  Dr.  Schlagintweit  (p.  189)  and  Koeppen 
the  generality  of  temples  in  Mongolia  and  Tibet  con- 
sist of  one  large  square  or  rectangular  room,  with  an 
entrance-hall  or  vestibule,  which  in  Mongolia  looks  to 
the  south  and  in  Tibet  to  the  east.  '  The  inside 
surface  is  whitewashed  or  covered  with  a  kind  of 
plaster,'  and  decorated  with  paintings  representing 
episodes  taken  from  the  life  of  the  Buddhas,  or  with 
pictures  of  gods  and  goddesses  of  terrible  aspect. 
Generally  images  of  the  four  great  kings  are  placed 
here  as  guardians  of  the  sanctuary  (p.  206  of  this 
volume).  Sometimes  there  are  side  chambers,  which 
may  be  compared  to  transepts,  and  give  the  building 
the  form  of  a  cross.  These  chambers  often  have 
shelves  for  the  sacred  books,  wrapped  in  silk.  In  the 
corners  are  tables  for  images  of  the  deities,  religious 
dresses,  musical  instruments,  etc.  Other  articles  re- 
quired for  the  daily  service  are  hung  up  on  wooden 
pegs  along  the  walls.  Benches  for  the  Lamas  are 
placed  in  the  hall  of  the  temple. 

The  altar  at  the  further  extremity  rises  in  steps 
made  of  wood,  beautifully  carved  and  richly  ornamented. 
Upon  these  are  arranged  images  of  the  Buddhas  and 
Bodhi-sattvas,  and  especially  the  chief  idol  representing 
Gautama  Buddha  in  some  of  his  forms  and  attitudes. 
Here  also  are  vessels  for  offerings,  bells,  Dorjes  (p.  323), 
and  other  utensils  used  in  religious  worship.  Among 
the  latter  may  be  seen  the  mirror  (Melong,  see  p.  463) 
used  in  the  ceremony  described  at  p.  335.      There  is 


GREAT   CHO   KHANG   TEMPLE    AT   LHASSA.  459 

also  a  vase  witli  peacock's  feathers,  and  a  sacred  book 
is  never  wanting. 

The  vessels  for  offerings  are  of  brass,  and  like  tea- 
cups. They  are  usually  filled  with  barley,  butter,  and 
perfumes,  and  in  summer  with  flowers.  Near  at  hand 
is  a  Chorten  (p.  380)  containing  rehcs,  and  having  a 
niche  with  the  image  of  a  Buddha  or  Bodhi-sattva, 
to  whom  the  temple  may  perhaps  be  dedicated. 

Finally,  in  the  entrance-vestibule,  at  both  sides  of 
the  door,  as  well  as  in  the  interior,  stand  rows  of  larjre 
and  small  prayer-cylinders,  which  are  perpetually  kept 
revolving  by  the  attendant  Lamas. 

Of  course  the  temples  at  the  great  centres  of  Tibetan 
Buddhism  in  and  near  Lhassa,  Tashi  Lunpo,  and  other 
important  places,  are  far  more  imposing.  Indeed,  for 
magnificence,  few  religious  edifices  in  any  part  of  the 
world  can  compare  with  them. 

The  great  temple  (called  Clio  Khang)  in  the  monas- 
tery of  La  hrang  at  Lhassa  is  a  kind  of  centre  of  the 
Lamistic  Church.  It  is  the  first  and  oldest  temple,  and, 
as  before  stated  (p.  440),  the  St.  Peter's  of  Lamism  K 

The  facade  of  this  vast  structure  looks  to  the  east, 
and  in  front  of  it  is  a  square  place,  with  a  kind  of 
obelisk  or  monolith,  commemorating  the  victory  of  the 
Tibetans  over  the  Chmese  in  the  ninth  century,  as  well 
as  more  recent  treaties  of  peace  and  friendship  between 
the  two  countries.  The  main  building  is  three  stories 
high.    Before  the  entrance  stands  a  lofty  flag-pole,  forty 

^  This  description  is  based  on  Koeppen,  ii,  234,  and  on  tlie  narra- 
tive of  Sarat  Chandra  Das'  journey  in  1881,  1882. 


460  GREAT   TEMPLE    AT    LHASSA. 

feet  higli^  and  not  for  off  is  a  poplar,  said  to  Lave 
sprung  '  from  the  consecrated  hair  of  Buddha.'  The 
portico  of  the  temple  consists  of  a  colonnade  of  six 
thick  wooden  columns.  The  walls  of  the  portico  are 
covered  with  rude  paintings,  representing  scenes  in  the 
biography  of  Gautama  Buddha.  In  the  middle  are 
folding  doors  adorned  with  bronze  carvings  in  relief. 
Through  these  is  the  entrance  into  the  front  hall,  over 
which  is  the  first  story.  In  the  wall  opposite  to  the 
entrance  is  a  second  door,  on  each  side  of  which  stand 
two  colossal  statues  of  the  four  great  kings  (see  pp.  23, 
51,  53,  54  of  this  volume). 

This  second  door  leads  into  the  interior  of  the  build- 
ing. On  entering,  the  visitor  finds  himself  in  a  vast 
temple,  shaped  like  a  basilica,  divided  by  rows  of 
columns  into  three  naves  and  two  transepts.  The 
broad  central  nave  is  lighted  from  above  by  trans- 
parent oil-cloth  instead  of  glass.  This  is  the  only  light 
which  finds  its  way  into  the  temple,  as  there  are  no 
side  windows.  On  the  outside  of  the  two  secondary 
naves  is  a  row  of  small  chapels,  fourteen  on  one  side 
and  fourteen  on  the  other.  The  two  transepts  form 
the  back-ground  of  the  great  hall,  and  are  separated 
from  the  naves  by  a  silver  lattice-work.  Here,  at  the 
ordinary  services,  are  the  seats  of  the  inferior  monks. 
From  tl)e  west  transept  a  staircase  leads  to  another 
[>illared   transept,  which    forms   the  vestibule   of  the 


^  Sarat  Chandra  Das  mentions  a '  flag-pole  forty  feet  liigli,  on  winch 
are  some  inscriptions,  two  tufts  of  yak  hair,  and  several  yak  and  sheep- 
horns.'     Possibly  this  naay  be  the  obelisk  mentioned  by  Koeppen. 


GEEAT   TEMPLE   AT   LHASSA.  46 1 

sanctuary.  In  the  middle  of  the  sanctuary,  wliich  is 
square  in  form,  is  the  altar  for  offerings.  Beyond  the 
altar,  at  the  west  side  of  tlie  sanctuary,  and  therefore 
in  the  furthest  recess  of  the  whole  building,  is  a  quad- 
rangular niche.  In  front  of  this  niche  on  the  left 
is  the  throne  of  the  Dalai  Lama,  very  lofty,  richly 
adorned  and  furnished  with  five  cushions,  as  is  custom- 
ary in  the  case  of  Grand  Lamas.  On  one  side  of  the 
Dalai  Lama's  throne  is  a  similar  throne  for  the  Panchen 
Lama,  and  then,  in  regular  order,  the  thrones  of  the 
Khutuktus  and  other  Avatara  Lamas.  The  Khanpos 
and  the  whole  non- Avatara  monkhood  have  seats  in  the 
transept. 

Opposite  to  the  throne  of  the  Dalai  Lilma,  on  the 
right  of  the  niclie,  is  the  chair  of  the  Kegent,  which  is 
less  elevated  than  the  thrones  of  the  Avatara  Lilmas. 
Behind  are  the  seats  of  the  four  ministers,  which  ao:ain 
are  less  elevated  than  those  of  the  non- Avatara  Lamas. 
At  the  west  end  of  the  niche  is  the  high  altar,  which 
rises  in  numerous  steps.  On  the  upper  steps  are  small 
images  of  deified  saints,  in  massive  gold  or  silver.  On 
the  lower  ones,  as  on  all  Buddhist  altars,  are  lamps, 
incense-holders,  bowls  for  offerings,  etc.  On  the  highest 
elevation,  behind  silver  and  golden  lattice- work,  is  the 
celebrated  image  of  Gautama  Buddha  richly  gilded. 
This  imao'e  is  said  to  have  been  constructed  in  Magadha 
during  the  lifetime  of  the  Buddha.  Others  hold  it 
to  be  self-produced  ;  and  another  tradition  ascribes  its 
origin  to  the  god  Visva-karma,  who,  instructed  by 
Indra,  constructed  it  with  equal  parts  of  five  metals  and 
five  precious  stones.     Besides   this   highest   object   of 


462  TEMPLE    AT   RAMOCHE. 

worship,  the  temple  contains  countless  images  and 
pictures  of  Buddhas  and  Bodhi-sattvas  (such  as  Di- 
pamkara,  Amitabha,  Maitreya,  the  eleven-faced  Avalo- 
kitesvara,  Manju-sri,  etc.),  besides  gods  and  goddesses  ^ 
and  historical  personages,  such  as  Tsong  Khapa,  who 
have  benefited  the  Lamistic  church  (among  them  being 
a  statue  of  Hiouen  Thsang),  as  well  as  relics,  and  gold 
and  silver  vessels,  which  are  exhibited  every  year  at  the 
beginning  of  the  third  month. 

Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das,  who,  in  his  '  Narrative,'  re- 
cords his  visit  to  the  great  Lhassa  temple,  informs  us 
that  when  he  was  there,  five  thousand  oil-burners  were 
lighted  in  the  court  of  the  temple,  and  those  before  the 
principal  image  were  all  of  gold.  He  found  some  of  the 
subordinate  chapels  infested  by  mice,  which  are  never 
touched,  because  supposed  to  be  metamorphosed  monks. 
He  observed  some  Buddhists  from  Nepal  chanting 
Sanskrit  hymns,  and  others  engaged  in  circumambu- 
lation,  while  the  muttering  of  Om  Mani  ]oadme  Hum 
(p.  372)  was  incessant. 

Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das  also  describes  a  visit  he  paid 
to  the  famous  shrine  of  Ramoclie,  before  adverted  to 
(seep.  441).  I  give  his  description  in  an  abbreviated 
form : — 

Our  equipment  was  as  usual  a  bundle  of  incense-sticks,  clarified 
butter,  and  a  few  scarves.  Our  road  turned  westwai-d  by  the  side  of 
a  long  Mandong  (see  p.  380).  I  left  it  to  my  right-hand  side,  seeing  that 
to  have  kept  it  on  my  left  would  have  been  heretical.     A  few  hundred 


One  of  these  is  the  terrific  goddess  Paldan  (p.  491),  worshipped 
by  all  Tibetans  and  Mongols,  and  identified  with  the  goddess  Kali. 


TEMPLE  AT  TASHI  LUNPO.  463 

paces  brought  us  to  the  gate  of  the  famous  temple  of  Eamoche, 
erected  by  the  wife  of  King  Srong  Tsan  Gampo,  the  first  Chinese 
princess  who  introduced  Buddhism  into  Tibet.  It  is  a  lofty  edifice, 
flat-roofed,  and  three  stories  high,  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall,  with 
a  high  and  wide  porch.  About  thirty  monks  were  solemnly  seated  to 
perform  a  religious  service,  on  two  sides  of  a  row  of  pillars  which 
supported  the  roof.  The  image  brought  by  the  Nepfdese  princess,  lay 
midway  between  the  pillars.  It  was  grand- looking  ;  and,  though  its 
face  was  gilded,  its  antiquity  was  manifest.  In  the  northern  lobby 
of  the  temple  was  a  vast  collection  of  ancient  relics,  such  as  shields, 
spears,  drums,  arrows,  sabres,  long  knives,  trumpets,  etc.  In  a  room 
to  the  left  of  the  entrance,  enclosed  by  iron  lattice-work,  were  a  few 
images  considered  especially  sacred.  We  were  also  shown  a  brass 
mirror,  called  Melong,  said  to  be  possessed  of  wonderful  properties. 

The  history  of  the  shrine,  according  to  the  same 
traveller,  is  this  : — The  princess  being  thoroughly  versed 
in  astrology,  found  that  there  was  a  spot  close  to  the 
new-built  city  of  Lhassa  which  was  connected  with  the 
lower  regions  of  torment.  On  that  plot  of  ground  she 
erected  the  shrine  of  Eamoche,  on  the  chief  altar  of 
which  she  placed  the  famous  statue  of  Buddha,  brought 
from  China.  In  this  way  she  hoped  to  intercept  the 
passage  (gati)  of  wicked  people  to  a  life  in  one  of  the 
hells  (see  p.  121).  Whoever,  at  the  time  of  death,  was 
brought  to  this  sanctuary,  could  only  be  born  again  in 
the  w^orlds  of  either  men  or  gods. 

Finally  we  come  to  the  temple  at  the  second  great 
Metropolis  of  Buddhism  : — 

Mr.  Bogle  (Markham's  Tibet,  p.  100)  describes  the 
temple  in  the  monastery  at  Taslii  Lunpo  as  simply  a 
long  room  or  gallery  containing  thirteen  gigantic  figures 
made  of  copper  gilt,  all  in  a  sedent  attitude,  with  their 
leo-s  folded  under  them.     He  found  them  all  draped, 


464  TEMPLE  AT  TASHI  LUNPO. 

with  jewelled  crowns  and  necklaces  of  coral,  pearls,  and 
other  stones.  The  thrones  on  which  they  sat  were  also 
of  copper  gilt,  and  adorned  with  turquoises  and 
cornelians.  Behind  them  were  a  variety  of  conch-shells, 
set  in  silver,  ostrich-eggs,  cocoa-nuts,  and  other  articles. 
At  each  end  of  the  gallery  was  a  large  collection  of 
books  deposited  in  pigeon-holes.  Mr.  Bogle  was  present 
when  the  Tashi  Lama  himself  entered  the  temple,  and, 
as  he  passed  along,  sprinkled  rice  upon  the  images. 
This  was  a  kind  of  consecration-ceremony. 

As  an  instance  of  the  tolerant  character  of  Buddhism 
and  its  readiness  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  indigenous 
creeds  of  the  countries  into  which  it  was  introduced, 
we  may  note,  in  conclusion,  that  in  Japan  may  be  seen 
Buddhist  and  Shinto  temples  side  by  side  or  even 
occasionally  combined  in  one  building.  Buddhism  in 
fact  adopted  Shintoism  in  Japan  just  as  it  adopted 
Shamanism  in  Tibet.  It  took  the  deities  and  demi-gods 
of  Shintoism  and  turned  them  into  Bodhi-sattvas  ^ 

The  subject  of  Monasteries  and  Temples  naturally 
leads  us  to  that  of  images  and  image- worship  ;  but  this 
and  the  whole  subject  of '  Sacred  Objects '  must  be  re- 
served for  the  next  two  Lectures. 


^  My  authority  for  this  is  Bishop  Edward  Bickersteth,  the  present 
Bishop  in  Japan. 


LECTURE    XVI. 

Images  and  Idols. 

Ox  several  occasions  during  my  travels  through  all 
parts  of  India,  I  asked  intelligent  Pandits  how  they 
could  reconcile  the  gross  idolatry  and  fetish-worship 
which  meet  the  eye  at  almost  every  step  throughout 
the  length  and  breadth  of  their  land,  with  the  doc- 
trine repeatedly  declared  to  be  the  only  true  creed  of 
Brahmanism — the  doctrine  that  nothing  really  exists 
but  the  one  eternal,  omnipresent  Spirit  of  the  Uni- 
verse (named  Brahman  or  Brahma)  ^ 

The  answer  I  generally  received  to  this  inquiry  was, 
that  spiritual  worship  was  at  first  the  only  form  of 
religion  dominant  in  India,  till  the  Buddhists  set  the 
example  of  worshipping  material  objects  and  images 
(pratima-puja). 

Of  course  it  is  impossible  to  say  what  amount  of 
truth  there  may  be  in  this  accusation.  It  seems 
probable  that  material  impersonations  of  the  forces 
of  nature  existed  before  the  Buddha's  time.  Yet  there 
is  no  evidence  of  the  prevalence  of  actual  idolatry  at 
the  time  when  the  Rig-veda  was  com]:)OSGd.  Nor  is 
there  any  very  clear  allusion  to  it  in  Manu.  Nor 
have  any  images  of  Hindu  gods  been  found  which  are 


^  See  my  '  Bralimanism  and  Hinduism  '  (published  by  Mr.  Murray  of 
Albemarle  Street),  i)p.  2-20. 

Hh 


466  IMAGES    AND    IDOLS. 

SO  ancient  as  some  Buddhist  images.  At  the  same 
time  nothing  is  said  about  image-worship  in  the 
Buddhist  Pitakas.  The  statement  that  the  Buddha 
himself  sanctioned  idolatry  is  wholly  legendary  (see 
p.  177).  Nor  is  there  any  proof  that  carved  images  of 
his  person  were  common  in  India  till  several  centuries 
after  his  death. 

The  Bharhut  sculptures  of  about  the  second  century 
B.C. — though  representing  many  scenes  connected  with 
the  Buddha  (see  pp.  408,  523) — exhibit  no  representa- 
tions of  the  Buddha  himself.  Nor  are  there  any  on  the 
Sanchi  gateway  of  still  later  date. 

The  only  objects  of  reverence  in  the  Bharhut  sculp- 
tures, according  to  Sir  A.  Cunningham,  are  Bodhi-trees, 
Wheels,  the  Tri-ratna  symbol,  Stupas,  and  foot-prints 
(see  pp.  521-522  of  these  Lectures).  The  bas-reliefs  on 
the  railing  at  the  Buddha-Gaya  Temple,  which  is  of  a 
little  earlier  date,  agree  in  making  the  Tree,  Wheel, 
Tri-ratna,  and  Stupa  the  great  objects  of  reverence. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  edicts  of  king  Asoka  venera- 
tion for  the  Bodhi-tree  alone  is  enjoined.  Among  the 
historical  scenes  represented  in  the  Bharhut  sculptures, 
are  the  processions  of  the  kings  Ajata-satru  and  Prasena- 
jit  on  their  visits  to  the  Buddha  ;  'the  former  on  his 
elephant,  the  latter  in  his  chariot,  exactly  as  they  are 
described  in  the  Buddhist  chronicles.'  There  are  also  bas- 
reliefs  which  seem  to  represent  Eama,  during  his  exile, 
besides  images  of  other  gods,  Yakshas  and  Nagas,  but 
no  figure  of  Buddha  himself  is  to  be  seen  anywhere. 

Yet  it  is  undeniable  that  in  the  early  centuries  of  our 
era,  images  of  Gautama  Buddha  and  other  Buddhas  and 


/% 


KKMMNS    OF    A    COLOSSAL    STATUE    OF    BUDDHA,    PKOliAliLY    ONCE    IN    THE 
ARGUMENTATIVE    OR   TEACHING   ATTITUDE    (see  p.  48 1 ). 

Foiinil  in  tlie  I'uiiis  close  to  the  W)\itli  side  (if  tlie  Biiddha-Gaya  temple, 
the  date  (S.  64  =  a.d.  142)  being  insciibed  im  the  pedestal. 


[  To  /lice  paije  46  7 


NO  EARLY  IMAGES  OF  THE  BUDDHA.      467 

Bodhi-sattvas  had  become  common  among  the  Buddhists 
in  every  part  of  India. 

One  of  the  oldest  statues  of  the  Buddha  that  has  yet 
been  brought  to  light  is  the  colossal  image  (now  in 
the  Calcutta  Museum)  dug  up  in  the  ruins  outside 
the  ancient  temple  at  Buddha-Gaya  (p.  390),  the  date 
inscribed  on  which  corresponds  to  about  a.d.  142.  The 
engraving  (opposite)  is  from  a  photograph  of  this  statue, 
belonging  to  Sir  A.  Cunningham  \  The  thick  lips  are 
certainly  remarkable.  The  attitude  was  probably  the 
'argumentative'  or  'teaching'  (described  at  p.  481). 
Another  colossal  statue  of  about  the  same  date  was 
found  by  Sir  A.  Cunningham  at  Sravasti  (see  p.  408). 

It  was  indeed  by  a  strange  irony  of  fate  that  the  man 
who  denied  any  god  or  any  being  higher  than  himself, 
and  told  his  followers  to  look  to  themselves  alone  for 
salvation,  should  have  been  not  only  deified  and  wor- 
shipped, but  represented  by  more  images  than  any  other 
being  ever  idolized  in  any  part  of  the  world.  In  fact 
images,  statues,  statuettes,  carvings  in  bas-relief,  paint- 
ings, and  representations  of  him  in  all  attitudes  are 
absolutely  innumerable.  In  caves,  monasteries,  and 
temples,  on  Dagabas,  votive  Stupas,  monuments  and 
rocks,  they  are  multiplied  infinitely  and  in  endless 
variety,  and  not  only  are  isolated  images  manufactured 
out  of  all  kinds  of  materials,  but  rows  on  rows  are 
sculptured  in  relief,  and  the  greater  the  number  the 

^  Another  ancient  statue  but  not  so  old,  though  of  a  highly  interest- 
ing type,  was  procured  by  me  (for  the  Indian  Institute  at  Oxford) 
from  Buddha-Gaya  on  the  occasion  of  my  last  visit  in  1884,  through 
the  kind  assistance  of  j\Ir.  Beglar.     It  is  in  the  erect  attitude. 

H  h  2 


468  IMAGES   AND    IDOLS. 

greater  religious  merit  accrues  to  the  sculptor,  and — if 
they  are  dedicated  at  sacred  places — to  the  dedicator 
also. 

And  not  only  images  of  the  Buddha,  but  representa- 
tions of  every  object  that  could  possibly  be  connected 
with  him,  became  multiplied  to  an  indefinite  extent. 

The  gradual  growth  of  what  may  be  called  objective 
Buddhism,  and  the  steps  which  led  to  every  kind  of 
extravagance  in  the  idolatrous  use  of  images,  may  be 
described  in  the  following  manner  : — 

It  was  only  natural  that  the  disciples  of  an  ideally 
perfect  man,  who  had  taught  them  that  in  passing  away 
at  death  he  would  become  absolutely  extinct,  should 
have  devised  some  method  of  perpetuating  his  memory 
and  stimulating  a  desire  to  conform  to  his  example. 
Their  first  method  was  to  preserve  the  relics  of  his 
burnt  body,  and  to  honour  every  object  associated  with 
his  earthly  career.  Then,  in  process  of  time,  they 
began  to  worship  not  only  his  relics  but  the  receptacles 
under  which  they  were  buried,  and  around  these  they 
placed  sculptures  commemorative  of  his  life  and 
teaching.  Thence  they  passed  on  to  the  carving 
or  moulding  of  small  statuettes  of  his  person  in  wood, 
stone,  metal,  terra-cotta,  or  clay,  and  on  these  they 
often  inscribed  the  well-known  Buddhistic  formulse 
mentioned  before  (see  p.  104).  Eventually,  too,  paint- 
ing was  pressed  into  the  service,  and  frescoes  on  walls 
became  common.  Indeed  in  some  temples  paintings 
take  the  place  of  images,  as  objects  of  adoration. 

It  seems  likely  that  the  use  of  images  and  paintings 
was   at  first  confined    to   the  brotherhood,  and   it   is 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    IMAGE- WORSHIP.  469 

alleged  that  they  were  only  honoured  and  not  wor- 
shipjDed.  But  the  more  the  circle  of  uncultured  and 
unthinking  Buddliists  became  enlarged,  the  more  did 
visible  representations  of  the  founder  of  Buddhism 
become  needed,  and  the  more  they  became  multiplied. 

Nor  was  this  all.  The  reaction  from  the  original 
simplicity  of  Buddhism  led  to  a  complete  repudiation 
of  its  anti-theistic  doctrines.  It  adopted  polytheistic 
superstitions  even  more  rapidly  and  thoroughly  than 
Brahmanism  did.  People  were  not  satisfied  with 
representations  of  the  founder  of  Buddhism.  They 
craved  for  other  visible  and  tangible  objects  of  adora- 
tion— for  the  images  of  other  Buddhas  and  Bodhi- 
sattvas — of  gods  many  and  lords  many, — insomuch  that 
a  Buddhist  Pantheon  was  gradually  created  which  be- 
came peopled  with  a  more  motley  crowd  of  occupants 
than  that  of  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism. 

Furthermore,  it  was  only  natural  that  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  whole  array  of  divinities  and  semi-divinities, 
of  saints  and  sages,  should  have  been  committed  to  the 
monks.  They  alone  possessed  this  privilege.  They 
alone,  too,  had  the  power  of  consecrating  each  image 
by  the  repetition  of  mystical  texts  and  formularies. 
And  when  images  and  idols  were  thus  consecrated, 
they  were  believed  to  be  animated  with  the  spirit,  and 
to  possess  all  the  attributes  of  the  beings  they  repre- 
sented. 

In  fact,  the  development  of  every  phase  of  idolatrous 
superstition  reached  a  point  of  extravagance  unparal- 
leled in  any  other  religious  system  of  the  world.  The 
monks  of  Buddhism  vied  with  each  other  in  the  '  pious 


470 


IxMAGES    AND    IDOLS. 


fraud '  with  which  they  constructed  their  idols.  They 
so  manipulated  them  that  they  appeared  to  give  out 
liffht  or  to  flash  supernatural  glances  from  their  crystal 
eyes.  Or  they  made  them  deliver  oracular  utterances, 
or  they  furnished  them  with  movable  limbs,  so  that  a 
head  would  unexpectedly  nod,  or  a  hand  be  raised  to 
bless  the  worshipper.  Then  they  clothed  them  with 
costly  vestments,  and  adorned  them  with  ornaments 
and  jewels,  and  treated  them  in  every  way  as  if  they 
were  living  energizing  personalities. 

It  ought,  however,  to  be  noted  here,  that  in  some 
temples  images  of  the  Buddhas  and  Bodhi-sattvas  were 
said  to  exist  which  were  not  manufactured  or  conse- 
crated by  monks.  They  were  believed  to  have  been  self- 
produced,  or  to  have  been  created  supernaturaily  out  of 
nothing,  or  to  have  emerged  in  a  miraculous  manner 
out  of  vacuity.  The  child-like  faith  of  uncultured  and 
imaginative  races  in  the  virtue  supposed  to  be  inherent 
in  such  images  was  perhaps  not  surprising.  The  power  of 
working  all  kinds  of  miracles  was  gradually  ascribed  to 
them  ;  sicknesses  were  said  to  be  healed  by  them,  rain 
to  be  produced,  and  the  course  of  nature  itself  to  be 
subject  to  their  direction  and  control. 

The  two  Chinese  pilgrims  Fa-hien  and  Hiouen 
Thsang  are  never  tired  of  describing  the  wonders  sup- 
posed to  have  been  wrought  by  the  statues  and  idols 
they  saw  during  their  travels,  especially  by  the  marvel- 
lous sandal-wood  statue  mentioned  before  (see  p.  408). 

The  following  tradition  in  regard  to  this  image, 
narrated  by  Fa-hien  (Legge,  56,  57),  is  especially  in- 
teresting as  showing  that  the  general  belief  among  all 


FORM    AND    CHARACTER    OF    IMAGES.  47 1 

classes  of  Buddhists  in  his  time  was,  that  Gautama 
Buddha  himself  was  the  first  to  sanction  the  making 
of  visible  representations  of  himself : — 

When  Buddha  went  up  to  the  Trayastrinsa  heaven  and  preached 
the  law  for  the  benefit  of  his  mother  for  ninety  days,  Praseuajit  long- 
ing to  see  him,  caused  an  image  to  be  carved  in  GosTrsha  sandal- 
wood, and  put  in  the  place  where  he  usually  sat.  Wlieu  Buddha,  on 
his  return,  entered  the  Vihara,  this  image  immediately  left  its  i)lace, 
and  came  forth  to  meet  him.  Buddha  then  said  to  it:  'Retui'u  to 
your  seat.  After  I  have  attained  Pari-nirvana  you  shall  serve  as  a 
pattern  to  the  four  classes  (paths,  see  p.- 13 2)  of  my  disciples.'  There- 
upon the  image  returned  to  its  seat.  This  was  the  very  first  of  all 
the  images  of  Buddha,  and  that  which  men  subsequently  copied. 

In  Hiouen  Thsang's  narrative,  which  is  of  much  later 
date  (see  p.  413),  we  find  the  following  account  of  this 
celebrated  sandal- wood  image  (Beal,  ii.  322) : — 

At  the  town  of  Pima  (Pi-mo)  there  is  a  figure  of  Buddha  in  a 
standing  position  made  of  sandal-wood.  The  figure  is  about  twenty 
feet  high.  It  works  many  miracles,  and  reflects  constantly  a  bright 
light.  Those  who  have  any  disease,  accoi'ding  to  the  part  affected, 
cover  the  corresponding  place  on  the  statue  with  gold-leaf,  and  forth- 
with they  are  healed.  People  who  addi'ess  prayers  to  it,  with  a 
sincere  heart,  mostly  obtain  their  wishes.  This  is  what  the  natives 
say :  '  This  image  in  old  days,  when  Buddha  was  alive,  was  made  by 
Udayana,  King  of  KausambI  (see  p.  412  of  these  Lectures).  When 
Buddha  left  the  world,  it  mounted  of  its  own  accord  into  the  air,  and 
came  to  the  north  of  this  kingdom  to  the  town  of  Ho-lo-lo-kia  (Urgha  1).' 

With  resrard  to  the  form  and  character  of  the  count- 
less  images  now  scattered  everywhere,  they  vary  ac- 
cording to  country  and  period  (see  p.  485).  It  should 
be  observed,  however,  that  Buddhism,  when  it  began 
to  encourage  idolatry,  did  not  make  it  hideous  by 
giving  monstrous  shapes  to  its  idols.  In  this  respect 
early  Buddhism  contrasted  very  favourably  with  Hin- 


472  IMAGES   AND    IDOLS. 

diiism.  Nor  did  the  Buddhists  of  India,  as  of  other 
countries,  adopt  the  practice  of  endowing  their  idols 
with  extra  heads  and  arms  to  symbohze  power,  or  of 
inventing  grotesque  combinations  of  tlie  human  figure 
with  the  shapes  of  elephants,  birds,  serpents,  and  other 
animals.  They  seemed  rather  to  have  tried  in  the  first 
instance  to  neutralize  the  tendency  to  extravagant 
symbolism  common  among  all  Eastern  peoples,  by 
delineating  their  great  teacher  as  an  ideal  man,  simply 
and  naturally  formed,  according  to  the  Buddhist  ideal 
of  perfection  with  symmetrical  limbs,  and  a  dignified, 
calm,  passionless,  and  majestic  bearing.  What  can  be 
a  greater  contrast  than  the  four-armed  elephant-headed 
village-god  of  India, — Ganesa,  son  of  Siva^ — and  the 
purely  human  figure  of  the  Buddha  as  shown  in  his 
statues  ! 

Nevertheless  it  must  be  admitted  that  in  process  of 
time  the  representations  of  Gautama  Buddha  developed 
certain  peculiar  varieties  of  form  as  well  as  differences 
in  attitude.  These  differences,  indeed,  constitute  a 
highly  interesting  topic  of  inquiry,  and  perhaps  de- 
serve more  attention  than  they  have  hitherto  received 
in  any  treatise  with  which  I  am  acquainted. 

Without  going  minutely  into  every  point,  we  may 
begin  by  noting  a  few  general  characteristics  common 
to  all  the  Buddha's  images. 

In  the  first  place,  they  all  represent  Gautama  as 
clothed — not  naked.  In  this  respect  they  present  a 
pleasant  contrast  to  the  images  of  Jaina  saints  ;  for,  as 


^  See  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  214. 


GENERAL  CHARACTEEISTICS  OF  BUDDHa's  IMAGES.    473 

already  pointed  out,  Gautama  discountenanced  all  ex- 
tremes of  bodily  mortification,  and  disapproved  the 
practice  of  going  about  nude,  according  to  the  custom 
of  Hindu  devotees.  In  the  Dharma-pada  it  is  said, 
*  Not  nakedness,  not  matted  hair,  not  dirt,  not  fasting, 
nor  lying  on  the  ground,  nor  smearing  with  ashes,  nor 
sitting  motionless  can  purify  a  mortal  who  has  not 
overcome  desires.' 

Gautama's  robe  was  drawn  gracefully  over  his 
shoulders  like  a  toga,  but  probably  the  right  shoulder 
was  always  left  bare  on  formal  occasions.  The  Pitakas 
give  no  clear  information  as  to  this  point.  In  Indian 
statues  the  robe  is  sometimes  represented  as  fitting  so 
closely  to  the  body  that  the  figure  seems  garment- 
less  ^ ;  its  presence  being  merely  denoted  by  a  line 
running  diagonally  over  the  left  shoulder  across  the 
breast,  and  under  the  right  arm.  This  line  frequently 
looks  so  like  a  cord  that  some  have  mistaken  it  for  the 
thread  to  which,  as  a  Kshatriya,  Buddha  was  entitled  -. 
In  some  ancient  images  no  trace  of  the  line  is  left, 
but  they  are  not  really  nude.  Most  Indian  images 
have  the  right  shoulder  bare  (even  in  the  case  of  nuns). 
Of  course  in  colder  climates  both  shoulders  are  covered. 
Even  in  Southern  countries  some  have  both  shoulders 
covered,  or  the  right  partially  so. 

In   contradistinction  to  the  clothed  images  of  the 
Buddha,  all  the  representations  of  his  great  opjDonent 

^  A  good  example  of  this  tight-fitting  robe  is  afforded  by  the 
ancient  statue  of  the  Buddha,  mentioned  at  p.  467,  note. 

-  AVhen  Gautama  renounced  his  family  and  caste,  he  doubtless 
discarded  the  cord,  just  as  a  true  Sannyasi  is  re{[uii-ed  to  do  (p.  78). 


474  CHARACTEEISTICS    OF    BUDDHA  S    IMAGES. 

aiid  rival  Deva-datta,  (see  pp.  52,  405)  make  the  latter 
unclothed,  like  a  Jaina  ascetic,  or  only  partially  clothed 
up  to  the  waist.  Deva-datta  is  also  represented  as 
shorter  in  stature  than  the  Buddha. 

Other  characteristics  generally  to  be  observed  in  the 
earlier  images  of  Gautama  Buddha  are  :  — the  impassive 
tranquil  features,  typical  of  complete  conquest  over  the 
passions,  and  of  perfect  repose  ;  the  absence  of  all  deco- 
ration and  ornament ;  the  long  pendulous  ears,  which 
occasionally  reach  to  the  shoulders  ^ ;  the  circle  or  small 
globe  or  lotus  ^,  or  auspicious  mark  of  some  kind,  on  the 
palm  or  palms  of  the  supinated  hands  (as  well  as  often 
on  the  soles  of  the  feet),  and  the  short  knobby  hair,  often 
carved  so  as  to  resemble  a  close-fitting  curly  wig. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Gautama  signalized 
his  renunciation  of  the  world  bv  cutting^  off  his  hair 
with  a  sword,  and  the  resulting  stumps  are  said  to 
have  turned  into  permament  knobs  or  short  curls  ^. 

In  imao;es  brouo-ht  from  Burma  and  Siam  a  curious 
horn-like  protuberance  on  the  crown  of  the  head — 
either  tapering  to  a  point,  or  rounded  off  at  the   ex- 


^  In  the  Jaina  statues,  the  lobes  of  the  ears,  so  far  as  I  have 
observed,  always  touch  the  shoulders. 

^  Some  think  that  this  represents  the  wheel  of  the  Cakra-vartI 
emperor,  or  the  wheel  of  the  law,  or  the  cycle  of  causes,  or  the  con- 
tinual revolution  of  births,  deaths,  and  re-births.  Dr.  Mitra  maintains 
that  a  lotus,  and  nut  a  wheel,  is  always  intended,  though  the  lotus  is 
often  so  badly  carved  that  it  may  j)ass  for  any  circular  ornament. 

^  Dr.  Eajendralfila  Mitra  considers  that  curly  locks  were  given  to 
Gautama  Buddha  because  the  possession  of  curls  is  believed  to  be  an 
auspicious  sign.  Some  have  actually  inferred  from  the  curl-like  knobs, 
that  Buddha  was  a  negro ! 


OUTGROWTH    OF    SKULL.       NIMBUS.  475 

tremity— is  noticeable.     Often,  too,  sculptures  found  in 
India  show  the  rounded  form  of  this  excrescence. 

Some  think  that  it  represents  an  ascetic's  mass  of 
hair  coiled  up  in  a  top-knot  on  the  crown  of  the  head, 
as  in  images  of  the  god  Siva.  Others  regard  it  as 
the  rough  outline  of  what  ought  to  be  an  Ushnlsha  or 
pecuhar  crown-like  head-dress,  such  as  may  be  seen  in 
many  later  images  of  the  Buddha.  Some  legends 
declare  that  the  Buddha  was  born  with  this  Ushnisha, 
which  was  indicative  of  his  future  supremacy. 

Others,  again,  maintain  that  this  protuberance  (some- 
times lengthened  out  so  as  to  be  as  high  as  the  head 
itself)  was  a  peculiar  growth  of  the  skull,  and  one  of 
the  marks  of  a  supreme  Buddha  indicative  of  super- 
natural intelligence  ;  just  as  in  other  images  (especially 
those  brought  from  Ceylon)  five  flames — in  shape  like 
the  fingers  of  a  hand — are  represented  issuing  from  the 
crown  of  the  head  (see  p.  453),  to  typify  the  Buddha's 
diff'usion  of  light  and  knowledge  throughout  the  world. 

It  is  said  that  this  outgrowth  of  the  Buddha's  skull 
has  been  preserved  as  a  sacred  relic  in  a  town  of 
Afghanistan  near  Jalalabad. 

In  many  representations  of  the  Buddha,  a  Ximbus 
or  aureola  of  glory  encircles  the  head  (see  p.  478), 
and  in  some  images  rays  of  light  are  represented  as 
emerging  from  his  whole  body.  An  image  with  a  halo 
of  this  kind  surrounding  the  entire  figure  was  seen  by 
me  in  a  temple  near  Kandy  in  Ceylon  (see  p.  453). 

In  Nepal  many  images  represent  Buddha  holding  his 
alms-bowl,  but  these  are  not  common  in  other  places. 

With  regard  to  the  size  of  the  images,  they  vary 


476         SIZE    AND    HEIGHT   OF   BUDDHA's    IMAGES, 

from  diminutive  examples,  two  or  three  inches  long,  to 
colossal  statues  twelve,  eighteen,  twenty,  thirty,  forty, 
or  even  seventy  feet  high.  They  are  generally  carved 
in  stone  or  marble,  but  sometimes  in  metal,  sometimes 
in  wood,  and  occasionally  moulded  in  clay. 

Much  difference  of  opinion  prevails  as  to  the  Buddha's 
actual  stature.  When  I  asked  the  opinion  of  Buddhist 
teachers  in  Ceylon,  they  all  agreed  in  assigning  to  the 
founder  of  their  religion  a  majestic  bodily  frame,  not 
only  gifting  him  with  the  possession  of  the  thirty-two 
distinguishing  marks  of  a  perfect  man  and  supreme 
Buddha  (see  p.  20),  but  with  great  height  and  im- 
posing presence.  A  common  idea  is  that  the  eighteen- 
feet  statues  represent  life-size.  According  to  other 
legends  the  Buddha's  stature  reached  to  twenty  cubits. 
In  China,  the  mythical  history  of  Buddha  gives 
him  a  height  of  only  sixteen  feet  \  His  arms  are  by 
some  said  to  have  been  so  long,  that  he  was  able  to 
touch  his  knees  with  his  hands  without  stooping,  and 
if  we  are  to  take  the  supposed  impress  of  his  foot  on 
Adam's  Peak  and  in  Siam  as  the  measure  of  his  stature, 
he  must  have  been  the  most  gigantic  giant  that  ever 
lived.  Even  one  of  the  most  enlightened  natives  of 
Ceylon,  the  late  Mr.  James  d'Alwis — a  convert  to 
Christianity — told  me,  in  explanation  of  the  abnormal 
size  of  the  eye-tooth  at  Kandy,  that  he  was  convinced 
that  all  human  beings  were  taller  in  Buddha's  time, 
and  that  Gautama  was  taller  than  his  fellow-men  of 
those  days,  and  was  about  eight  feet  high.     It  was  his 


'  See  Dr.  Edkins'  '  Chinese  Buddhism  '  (p.  256). 


SCULPTUEE  rOUND   BY   SIB   A.    CUNNIXOHAM   AT   SAEXATH,    NEAE   BEXAEES, 

Illustrating  the  four  principal  events  in  Gautama  Buddha's  life— liis  birth  from  his  mother's 

Bide,  liis  attainment  of  liuddhahood  under  the  tree,  his  teaching  at  Benares,  and  liis 

passing  away  in  complete  Nirvana.     (Date  of  the  sculpture,  about  400  A.D.) 

[7'<)  face  page  477. 


DIFFERENT    ATTITUDES    OF   BUDDHa's   IMAGES.     477 

opinion  that  as  sin  increases  in  the  world,  so  men's 
stature  decreases.  Probably  the  Buddha  was  tall,  even 
for  the  North-west  of  India,  where  the  average  of  a  man's 
stature  is  about  five  feet  eight  or  nine  inches. 

As  to  the  attitudes  of  Gautama's  images,  they 
may  be  classed  under  the  three  heads  of  sedent,  erect, 
and  recumbent.  I  use  the  wwd  'sedent'  for  what 
ought  to  be  called  a  squatting  position,  with  the  legs 
folded  under  the  body.  Images  which  represent  a 
figure  sitting  in  European  fiishion  are  rare. 

Four  principal  images  represent  the  four  principal 
events  in  Buddha's  life,  as  shown  in  the  Sarnath  sculp- 
ture engraved  on  the  opposite  page  (compare  p.  ;^Sy). 

The  first  sedent  attitude  may  be  called  the  '  Medi- 
tative.'    The  example  below  is  described  at  p.  xxx.  15. 


This  represents  the   Buddha  seated,  in   meditation, 


478 


IMAGES   AND    IDOLS. 


on  a  raised  seat  under  the  sacred  tree,  with  the  two 
hands  supinated,  one  over  the  other. 

Tlie  second  sedent  attitude  may  be  called  the 
'  Witness-attitude,'  It  is  perhaps  the  most  esteemed  of 
all,  and  is  represented  in  a  good  sculpture  delineated 
belov/  (from   Sir  A.  Cunnino-ham's  photograph,  see  p. 


XXX.  1 7).  This  represents  Gautama  at  the  moment  of 
achieving  Buddhahood  after  his  long  course  of  medita- 
tion, seated  on  a  lion- throne  (sinhasana)  with  an  orna- 
mental back,  having  two  lions  carved  below  (compare 
P-  394)-  His  legs  are  folded  in  the  usual  Indian 
fashion,  the  feet  being  turned  upwards,  while  the  right 
hand  hangs  over  the  right  leg  and  points  to  the  earth, 
and  the  left  hand  is  supinated  on  the  left  foot.     He 


WITNESS- ATTITUDE.  479 

has  an  aureola  round  his  head  and  a  mark —perhaps 
the  caste-mark  of  a  Kshatriva — on  his  forehead,  and  an 
umbrella  over  the  sacred  tree.  This  attitude  is  well 
shown  in  the  Sarnath  sculpture  (facing  ^d.  477). 

The  tradition  is  that  at  the  moment  of  his  enlighten- 
ment Gautama  was  taunted  by  the  evil  being  Mara  with 
being  unable  to  give  any  proof  or  sign  of  his  Buddha- 
hood.  Thereupon  Gautama  pointed,  not  to  heaven  as 
a  Brahman  might  have  done,  but  to  the  earth  beneath 
his  feet,  calling  it  to  w^itness.  Then  a  six-fold  earth- 
quake and  other  miraculous  phenomena  followed  ^ 

At  this  time,  too,  the  evil  being  Mara  sent  his 
enchanting  daughters  (p.  34)  to  seduce  the  Buddha. 
This  is  shown  in  the  engraving  facing  p.  477. 

The  incident  of  calling  the  earth  to  witness  is  thus 
mentioned  by  Hiouen  Thsang  : — 

In  the  Vihai-a,  was  found  a  beautiful  figure  of  Buddlia  in  a  sitting 
position,  the  right  foot  uppermost,  the  left  hand  resting,  the  right 
hand  hanging  down.  He  was  sitting  facing  the  east,  and  as  dignified 
in  appearance  as  when  alive.  The  signs  and  marks  of  a  Buddha  were 
perfectly  drawn.  The  loving  expression  of  his  face  was  like  life. 
Now  it  happened  that  a  Sramana,  who  was  passing  the  night  in  the 
Vihara,  had  a  dream,  in  which  he  saw  a  Brahman  who  said : — 

'  I  am  Maitreya  Bodhi-sattva.  Fearing  that  the  mind  of  no  artist 
could  conceive  the  beauty  of  the  sacred  features,  I  myself  have  come 
to  delineate  the  figure  of  Buddha.  His  right  hand  hangs  down,  in 
token  that  when  he  was  about  to  reach  Buddhahood  the  evil  Mfira 
came  to  tempt  him,  saying,  "  Who  will  bear  witness  for  you  1 "  Then 
Tathagata  dropped  his  hand  and  pointed  to  the  ground,  saying,  "  Here 
is  my  witness."  On  this  an  earth-spirit  leapt  forth  to  bear  witness.' 
(Beal's  Records,  ii.  121,  abridged.) 

This  '  Witness-attitude '  is  also  shown  in  the  annexed 


1  See  Lalita-vistara  (Calc.  ed.),  pp.  402,  403,  449, 11.  6-14. 


48o 


SERPENT-CANOPIED    ATTITUDE. 


engraving  from  a  photograph  of  one  of  the  only 
statues  that  remained  in  the  exterior  niches  of  the 
ancient  Buddha-Gaya  temple  before  its  restoration. 


The  two  seal-Hke  circles  on  each  side  contain  the  usual 
*Ye  dharma'  formula  (see  p.  104  and  p.  xxx.  18). 

The  third  sedent  pose  or  position  may  be  called  the 
'  Serpent-canopied.'  This  is  commemorative  of  the 
legend  that  Gautama,  when  seated  in  meditation  after 
his  attainment  of  Buddhahood,  was  sheltered  from  a 
violent  storm  by  the  expanded  hood  of  the  Naga,  or 
serpent-demon  Mucalinda  (see  p.  39),  while  the  coils  of 
the  snake  were  wound  round  his  body,  or  gathered 
under  him  to  form  a  seat.  Similarly  the  ascetic  form 
of  Siva  is  often  represented  under  a  serpent-canopy. 


TEACHING    ATTITUDE.  48  I 

Only  one  example  of  tins  has  been  found  at  Buddha- 
Gaya.  Such  images,  however,  are  common  in  the 
south,  and  their  prevalence  there  is  not  difficult  to 
account  for.  Indeed,  the  connexion  of  Buddhism  with 
the  serpent- worship  of  southern  countries  and  with  the 
Nagas  of  Hindu  mythology  (see  p.  220  of  these  Lec- 
tures), was  one  inevitable  result  of  its  readiness  to 
graft  popular  superstitions  on  its  own  doctrines  '. 

I  procured  a  good  specimen  of  the  '  Serpent-canopied  ' 
Buddha  during  my  stay  in  Ceylon.  It  is  made  of  heavy 
brass,  and  curiously  enough  represents  Buddha  with 
an  aquiline  nose.  It  has  the  five  rays  of  light  before 
alluded  to  (see  pp.  453,  475)  issuing  from  the  crown  of 
his  head.    See  the  frontispiece  opposite  title-page. 

In  some  images  an  umbrella  alone,  and  in  some,  as  at 
p.  4 7 8,  both  an  umbrella  and  tree  form  the  canopy. 

The  fourth  sedent  posture  may  be  called  the 
'  Argumentative '  (Tarka)  attitude  (as  shown  in  the 
engraving  opposite  p.  477).  It  represents  Gautama 
with  the  thumb  and  fino-er  of  the  risfht  hand 
touching  the  fingers  of  the  left,  and  apparently  going 
through  the  heads  of  his  doctrine  ^,  and  enforcing 
it,  as  he  usually  did,  by  reiterations.  This  is  sometimes 
called  the  '  Teaching '   attitude. 

Often  the  'Ye  dharma'  formula  (see  p.  104)  is  carved 
either  under  or  at  the  side  of  imafres  in  this  attitude. 

o 

^  See  my  remarks  on  the  worship  of  serpents  in  '  Brahmanism  and 
Hindiiism,' p.  319;  and  Fergussou's  great  work,  'Tree  and  Serpent 
Worship.' 

^  There  is  a  striking  parallel  in  a  well-known  picture  by  Bernardino 
Luini  (of  the  Milan  school)  of  '  Christ  disputing  with  the  Doctors ' 
to  be  seen  in  our  National  Gallery. 

I  i 


482  FIFTH,    SIXTH,    AND    SEVENTH    ATTITUDES. 

The  fifth  may  be  called  tlie  '  Preaching'  attitude.  It 
is  often  erect.  The  Buddha  has  one  finger  raised  in  a 
didactic  manner.  Monks  in  the  present  day  often 
read  the  Law  and  preach  in  the  same  manner. 

The  sixth  attitude  also — as  a  rule — comes  under  tlie 
erect  class,  and  is  often  scarcely  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  last.  It  may  be  called  the  '  Benedictive '  atti- 
tude (Asirvada).      See  the  engraving  opposite  p.  477. 

It  represents  the  Buddha  in  the  act  of  pronouncing 
a  benediction,  the  right  hand  being  raised.  This  atti- 
tude is  sometimes  sedent.  Even  to  this  day  Buddhist 
monks  bless  laymen  in  a  similar  attitude.  Occasionally 
the  figure  with  the  hand  upraised  has  a  crown,  and 
an  ornamental  head-dress ;  but  it  may  be  taken  for 
granted  that  all  images  of  the  Buddha  which  represent 
him  with  a  crown  of  any  kind  after  his  attainment  of 
Buddhahood,  are  comparatively  modern  and  incorrect. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  clear  that  even  ancient 
sculptures,  when  they  represent  him  as  a  prince,  may 
correctly  give  him  decorations  and  a  head-dress. 

The  seventh  attitude  may  be  called  the  'Mendicant.' 
This  also  is  a  standing  figure,  holding  a  round  alms- 
bowl  in  one  hand,  and  sometimes  screening  it  with  the 
other  (compare  p.  40).  Examples  of  this  attitude  are 
rare.  There  are  no  real  mendicants  in  Buddhism.  No 
monk  ever  begs,  he  only  receives  alms. 

The  eighth  and  last  attitude  is  recumbent,  and  this 
is  perhaps  as  important  as  the  second,  though  not  so 
common  (see  the  uppermost  figure  opposite  to  p.  477). 
It  represents  the  moribund  Gautama  lying  down  on 
his  right  side,  with  his  head  turned  towards  the  north. 


RECUMBENT  OR   MORIBUND   ATTITUDE.  483 

and  his  right  cheek  resting  on  his  right  hand,  about 
to  pass  away  in  the  final  consummation  of  Pari-nirvrinu 
(see  pp.  50,  140).  In  many  representations  of  this 
attitude,  the  usual  five  rays  of  light  often  mentioned 
before  are  made  to  issue  from  the  crown  of  the  head. 
A  colossal  image  of  this  kind  was  seen  by  me  in  a 
temple  near  Colombo,  and  there  is  a  good  example  of  it 
in  the  Indian  Institute  at  Oxfords  In  some  carvings 
of  the  dying  Buddha  a  few  attendants  are  represented, 
who  hold  umbrella-like  canopies  over  the  recumbent 
figure,  or  bow  down  reverentially  before  it.  It  has 
been  asserted  that  this  scene — as  commemorative  of 
the  grand  consummation  of  the  Buddha's  career  through 
countless  existences — is  held  in  as  much  reverence  by 
Buddhists  as  the  crucifixion  is  by  Christians. 

The  representation  of  the  Buddha  in  the  act  of  being 
born  is  found  in  sculptures  and  bas-reliefs,  but  is 
never  found  as  a  separate  image.  It  represents  him 
springing  out  of  the  side  of  his  mother  (note,  p.  180). 
This  birth-scene  is  occasionally  carved  on  temples. 
It  is  shown  in  the  lower  part  of  the  engraving  (opposite 
page  477).  The  god  Brahma  is  seen  receiving  the 
new-born  child,  while  Indra  stands  on  his  right  and 
the  mother's  sister  (i.e.  nurse,  p.  24)  is  on  her  left. 

Some  representations  of  the  Buddha,  or  of  certain 
forms  of  the  Buddha — such  as  Amitiibha — show  a 
sedent  figure  emerging  from  a  lotus-blossom,  or  seated 
on  a  pedestal  formed  of  lotus-leaves,  this  flower  sym- 
bolizing perfection. 


1  Procured  for  me  by  I\Ir.  Burrows,  of  the  Ceylon  Civil  Service. 

I  i  2 


484  IMAGES    OF    AMITABHA   AND   THE    TRIAD. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in  every  country  the 
images  of  the  Buddha  are  generally  moulded  according 
to  the  type  of  countenance  prevalent  in  each  country. 
Hence  the  contour  and  expression  of  face  differ  in 
Ceylon,  Burma,  Siam,  Tibet,  MongoHa,  China,  and 
Japan,  although  as  a  rule  the  features  are  calm,  mild, 
meditative,  and  passionless. 

In  Burma  the  people  are  merry ;  hence  the  images 
sometimes  have  a  twinkle  in  the  eye  and  smihng  lips. 

In  China,  again,  examples  sometimes  occur  of  images 
which  do  not  exhibit  Buddha  as  the  ideal  of  a  man 
who  has  conquered  his  passions,  but  rather  with  the 
figure  and  features  of  a  self-indulgent  libertine  ^ ;  while 
others  again  portray  him  with  a  grim  aspect. 

We  now  pass  on  to  the  representations  of  other 
Buddhas,  Bodhi-sattvas,  saints,  gods  and  goddesses. 

Often  two  other  images  are  associated  with  that  of 
Gautama  Buddha  himself. 

And,  first  of  all,  his  image  was  joined  with  the  other 
two  persons  of  the  earliest  Triad  (see  p.  1 75),  viz.  Dharma 
(the  Law)  and  Sangha  (the  Monkhood).  A  sculpture,  in 
a  broken  and  imperfect  condition,  representing  this 
earliest  Triad,  and  dating  from  the  ninth  to  the  tenth 
century,  was  found  at  Buddha-Gaya.  The  image  of 
Buddha,  under  an  umbrella-like  tree,  is  in  the  centre  ; 
that  of  the  Sangha  is  on  his  right,  with  a  full-blow^n 

^  See  especially  an  image  in  the  British  Museum.  In  China  Bas- 
relief  images  of  Buddha  are  sometimes  inserted  by  Buddhist  priests 
in  large  mussel-shells  while  the  animal  is  living,  and  are  covered 
by  it  with  a  coating  of  mother  of  pearl.  This  they  call  a  miracle.  An 
example  is  in  the  Indian  Institute,  presented  by  Mrs.  Newman  Smith. 


IMAGES  OF  OTHER  BUDDHAS  AND  BODHI-SATTVAS.     485 

lotus  (p.  I  ^^^  note  2),  and  having  one  leg  hanging  down, 
while  that  of  Dharma  (a  female)  is  on  his  left  with 
a  half-blown  lotus.  A  drawing  of  this  (from  Sir  A. 
Cunningham's  photograph)  is  given  below  :— 


111  Nepal  the  image  of  Dharma  is  always  that  of  a 
sedent  female,  who  is  supposed  to  be  an  embodiment 
of  supreme  wisdom  (prajiia  paramita),  and  sometimes 
has  four  arms  (see  note,  p.  1 78). 

Next  come  the  images  of  the  Buddhas  who  preceded 
Gautama,  especially  Kasyapa  Buddha,  Kanaka-muni, 
and  Kraku-cchanda.  It  is  often  mentioned  that  the 
images  of  one  or  other  of  these  three,  as  of  the  Bodhi- 
sattvas,  are  set  up  side  by  side  with  that  of  Gautama. 

Then,  of  course,  there  are  the  images  of  the  five 
Dhyani-Buddhas,  Perhaps  the  commonest  of  these  is 
that  of  Amitabha  (see  p.  203),  but  images  of  Akshobhya 
and  Eatna-sambhava  are  by  no  means  rare. 

Then  as  to  the  Bodhi-sattvas,  of  whom  Maitreya  is 
the  first  and  the  only  one  worshipped  by  Buddhists  of 


486  IMAGES    OF   MAITEEYA    AND   MANJU-SRI. 

all  countries  (see  p.  182),  Fa-hien  records  that  he  saw 
in  Northern  India  a  wooden  image  of  Maitreya  Bodhi- 
sattva  eighty  cubits  high,  which  on  fast  days  emitted 
a  brilliant  light.  Offerings  were  constantly  presented 
to  it  by  the  kings  of  surrounding  comi tries  (Legge,  23). 

Hiouen  Thsang  (Beal,  i.  134)  also  describes  this 
image  of  Maitreya  as  very  dazzling,  and  says  it  was 
the  work  of  the  Arhat  Madhyantika,  a  disciple  of 
Ananda.  He  saw  another  image  of  Maitreya  made 
of  silver  at  Buddha-Gaya,  and  another  made  of  sandal- 
wood in  Western  India.  The  latter  also  gave  out  a 
bright  light.  Probably  these  images  were  covered  with 
some  kind  of  gilding. 

In  the  present  day  the  images  of  Maitreya  often 
represent  him  with  both  hands  raised,  the  fingers  form- 
ing the  lotus-shaped  Mudra,  the  body  yellow  or  gilded, 
and  the  hair  short  and  curly. 

Passing  next  to  the  images  of  the  triad  of  mythi- 
cal Bodhi-sattvas,  Manju-sri,  Aval okites vara,  and  Vajra- 
pani  (p.  195),  we  may  gather  from  what  has  been 
already  stated  (p.  196),  that  the  interaction  of  Bud- 
dhism and  Hindviism  affected  both  the  mythology  and 
imagery  of  both  systems.  Yet  it  does  not  appear  that 
the  images  of  the  Bodhi-sattva  Manju-sri  were  ever 
unnaturally  distorted.  They  are  quite  as  human  and 
pleasant  in  appearance  as  those  of  Gautama  and  Mai- 
treya. In  general  Manju-sri  is  represented  in  a  sedent 
attitude,  with  his  left  hand  holding  a  lotus,  and  his 
right  holding  the  sword  of  wisdom,  with  a  shining 
blade  to  dissipate  the  darkness  of  ignorance  (see  p.  201). 
His  body  ought  to  be  yellow. 


IMAGE   OF    AVALOKITESVARA.  487 

It  was  not  till  the  introduction  of  the  worship  of 
Avalokitesvara  that  the  followers  of  Buddha  thought  of 
endowing  the  figures  of  deified  saints  with  an  extra 
number  of  heads  and  arms. 

The  process  of  Avalokitesvara's  (Padma-pani's)  crea- 
tion and  the  formation  of  his  numerous  heads  by  the 
Dhyani-Buddha  Amitabha,  is  thus  described  (Schla- 
gintweit,  p.  84,  abridged) : — 

Once  upon  a  time  Amitabha,  after  giving  himself  up  to  earnest 
meditation,  caused  a  red  ray  of  light  to  issue  from  his  right  eye,  which 
brought  Padma-pani  Bodhi-sattva  into  existence  ;  while  from  his  left 
eye  burst  forth  a  blue  ray  of  light,  which  becoming  incarnate  in  the 
two  wives  of  King  Srong  Tsau  (see  -p-  271),  liad  power  to  enlighten  the 
minds  of  human  beings.  Amitabha  then  blessed  Padma-pfini  Bodhi- 
sattva  by  laying  his  hands  upon  him,  so  that  by  virtue  of  this  benedic- 
tion, he  brought  forth  the  jirayer  '  Om  mani  jKidme  Hum.'  Padma- 
pani  then  made  a  solemn  vow  to  rescue  all  the  beings  in  hell  from 
their  pains,  saying  to  himseK: — 'If  I  fail,  may  my  head  split  into 
a  thousand  pieces  ! '  After  remaining  absorbed  in  contemplation  for 
some  time,  he  proceeded  to  the  various  hells,  expecting  to  find  that  the 
inhabitants,  through  the  efficacy  of  his  meditations,  had  ascended  to 
the  higher  worlds.  And  this  indeed  he  found  they  had  done.  But 
no  sooner  was  their  release  accomj)li.shed  than  all  the  hells  again 
became  as  full  as  ever,  the  places  of  the  out-going  tenants  being 
supplied  by  an  e(iual  number  of  new-comers.  This  so  astounded  the 
unhappy  Bodhi-sattva  that  his  head  instantly  split  into  a  thousand 
pieces.  Then  Amitabha,  deeply  moved  by  his  son's  misfortune, 
hastened  to  his  assistance,  and  formed  the  thousand  pieces  into  ten 
heads. 

Schlagintweit  states,  and  I  have  myself  observed, 
that  Avalokitesvara's  eleven  heads  are  generally  repre- 
sented as  forming  a  pyramid,  and  are  ranged  in  four 
rows.  Each  series  of  heads  has  a  particular  complexion. 
The  three    faces   resting   on  the  neck  are  white,  the 


488  IMAGE    OF    AVALOKITESVAEA. 

three  above  yellow,  the  next  three  red,  the  tenth  blue, 
and  the  eleventh — that  is,  the  head  of  his  father  Ami- 
tabha  at  the  top  of  all  ^ — is  red.  In  Japanese  images 
the  heads  are  much  smaller,  and  are  arranged  like  a 
crown,  the  centre  of  which  is  formed  by  two  entire 
figures,  the  lower  one  sitting,  the  other  standing  above 
it.  Ten  small  heads  are  combined  with  these  two 
figures. 

The  number  of  Avalokitesvara's  hands  ought  to 
amount  to  a  thousand,  and  he  is  called  '  a  thousand- 
eyed,'  as  having  the  eye  of  wisdom  on  each  palm.  Of 
course  all  these  thousand  arms  and  eyes  cannot  be 
represented  in  images.  Still  there  is  an  idol  in  the 
British  Museum  which  represents  him  with  about  forty 
arms,  two  of  which  have  the  hands  joined  in  an  atti- 
tude of  worship. 

A  remarkable  description  of  an  image  of  Avalo- 
kitesvara  seen  by  Sarat  Chandra  Das  (so  recently  as 
1882)  in  the  great  temple  at  Lhassa  occurs  in  his  'Nar- 
rative '  (which  I  here  abridge)  : — 

Next  to  the  image  of  Buddha,  the  most  conspicuous  figure  was  that 
of  Chanrassig  (i.e.  the  eleven-faced  Avalokitesvara).  The  origin  of 
this  is  ascribed  to  King  Sron  Tsan  Gampo  (p.  271  of  this  volume). 
Once  the  king  heard  a  voice  from  heaven,  saying  that  if  he  constructed 
an  image  of  Avalokitesvara  of  the  size  of  his  own  person,  all  his 
desires  would  be  fulfilled. 

Thereupon  lie  proceeded  to  do  so,  and  the  materials  he  used  were 
a  brunch  of  the  sacred  Bodhi-tree,  a  portion  of  the  Vajrasana,  some 
soil  from  an  oceanic  island,  some  sand  from  the  river  Nairanjana,  some 
pith  of  GosTrsha  sandal-wood,  a  portion  of  the  soil  of  the  eight  sacred 


^  The  sculptured  figures  of  Padma-pani  observed  by  me  in  the  caves 
of  Elora  represent  him  with  Amitablia  in  his  head-dress. 


IMAGES   OF   KWAN-YIX   AND    VAJEA-PANI.  489 

places  of  ancient  India,  and  many  other  rare  articles  pounded  together 
and  made  into  paste,  with  the  milk  of  a  red  cow  and  a  she-goat.  This 
paste  the  king  touched  with  his  head,  and  prayed  to  the  all-knowing 
Buddhas  and  the  host  of  Bodhi-sattvas,  that  by  the  merit  of  making 
that  image,  there  might  be  god-speed  to  the  great  work  he  had  under- 
taken— namely,  the  diffusion  of  Buddhism  in  Tibet. 

The  gods,  Buddhas,  saints,  etc.  filled  the  aerial  space  to  listen  to  his 
prayer. 

The  king  then  ordered  the  Nepalese  artist  to  hasten  the  completion 
of  the  image,  and  with  a  view  of  heightening  its  sanctity,  obtained 
a  sandal-wood  image  of  Avalokitesvara  from  Ceylon  and  inserted  it 
inside,  together  with  the  relics  of  the  seven  past  Buddhas.  When  the 
work  was  finished,  the  artist  said  : — 

'  Sire,  I  cannot  say  that  I  have  made  this  image,  it  has  passed  into 
self-grown  existence.'  Then  a  current  of  lightning  flashed  forth  from 
its  feet.  Afterwards,  the  souls  of  the  king  and  his  queen  are  said  to 
have  been  absorbed  into  it,  in  consequence  of  which  this  image  is 
called  '  the  five-absorbed  self-sjirung.' 

It  is  recorded  in  another  tradition  that  a  wonder- 
working image  of  Avalokitesvara  was  set  up  in  a 
monasterv  near  Kabul,  and  another  in  Mai>-adha  near 
the  Ganges.  Any  worshipf)er  who  approached  these 
idols  in  devotion  and  faith  were  favoured  with  a 
personal  vision  of  the  saint.  The  statues  opened,  and 
the  Bodhi-sattva  emerged  in  bright  rays  of  light  (com- 
pare Koeppen,  i.  p.  499). 

Originally,  and  still  in  Tibet,  Avalokitesvara  (other- 
wise called  Padma-pani)  had  only  male  attributes ;  but 
in  China  this  deity  (as  we  have  already  mentioned  at 
p.  200)  is  represented  as  a  woman,  called  Kwan-yin 
(in  Japan  Kwan-non),  with  a  thousand  arms  and  a  thou- 
sand eyes.  She  has  her  principal  seat  in  the  island  of 
Poo-too,  on  the  coast  of  China,  which  is  a  place  of  pil- 
grimage. 


490  IMAGES  OF  OTHER  BODHI-SATTVAS  AND  GODS. 

There  are  two  images  of  Kwaii-yin  in  the  British 
Museum,  one  with  sixteen  arms  and  the  other  with 
eiofht. 

Images  of  the  third  mythical  Bodhi-sattva — the 
fierce  Vajra-pani,  *  holding  a  thunderbolt  in  one  hand' — 
like  one  form  of  Siva — are  almost  as  common  as  those 
of  the  merciful  and  mild  Avalokitesvara.  He  has  been 
described  in  a  previous  Lecture  (p.  201). 

In  the  Pitt-Rivers  collection  at  Oxford  there  is  an 
image  of  this  Bodhi-sattva  engaged  in  combating  the 
power  of  evil.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  figures  of 
three  monkeys  are  carved  underneath,  one  stopping  his 
ears  with  his  hands,  another  stopping  his  eyes,  and 
another  his  mouth,  to  symbolize  the  effort  to  prevent 
the  entrance  of  evil  desires  through  the  three  most 
important  organs  of  sense. 

Witli  regard  to  the  images  of  female  deities  we  may 
observe  that  Tara,  the  wife  or  Sakti  of  Amogha- 
siddha  (p.  216),  is  represented  as  a  green  sedent  figure; 
her  right  hand  on  her  knee,  her  left  holding  a 
lotus. 

A  standing  image  of  the  goddess  Pattini  {p.  2 1 7  of 
this  volume)  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 

In  a  temple  which  I  visited  near  Darjiling  I  saw 
the  image  of  the  Padma-sambhava  or  '  lotus-born '  form 
of  Buddha  occupying  the  centre  of  the  altar,  with  the 
images  of  Gautama  Buddha  and  of  Buddha  Ayushmat, 
or  the  '  Buddha  of  Life,'  on  each  side. 

Sir  E.  Temple  (Journal,  p.  212)  relates  how  in  a 
chamber  of  a  Sikkim  monastery  there  were  three 
figures,  the  central  of  which,  with  a  fair  complexion, 


IMAGES    OF   OTHEK    BODHI-SATTVAS    AND   GODS.      49 1 

was  Amitabha,  that  on  its  right  Gautama  Buddha,  and 
on  its  left  Gorakh-nath  (see  p.  193  of  this  volume). 

In  the  monastery  of  Galdan  (p.  441)  Mr.  Sarat 
Chandra  Das  saw  the  golden  image  of  Tsong  Khapa 
(with  his  golden  chain  and  his  tooth  and  his  block- 
prints),  along  mth  the  images  of  Amitabha,  Gautama. 
Maitreya,  Bhairava  (the  awful  defender  of  Buddhism), 
Yama  *  the  lord  of  death,'  and  his  terrific  messengers. 

In  the  great  Clio  Khang  at  Lhassa  (see  p.  459)  he  saw 
images  of  Avalokitesvara,  Manju-sri,  Maitreya,  Kuvera, 
Padma-sambhava,  with  an  immense  number  of  others, 
and  especially  one  of  the  terrific  goddess  Paldan  (or 
Pandan)  who  is  feared  all  over  Tibet,  Mongolia,  and 
China,  as  the  greatest  guardian  deity  of  the  Dalai  and 
Tashi  Lamas  and  of  the  Buddhist  Dharma.  He  found 
her  shrine  infested  with  mice,  who  are  believed  to  be 
metamorphosed  monks. 

At  Sera  (p.  442)  he  saw  images  of  the  Buddha 
in  his  character  of  '  demon-vanquisher,'  along  with 
Maitreya  (in  silver),  Avalokitesvara,  the  six-armed 
Bhairava,  the  goddess  Kali,  Dolkar  (  =  Tara,  p.  271), 
the  Tantrik  Vajra-varahi,  the  sixteen  Sthaviras  (pp. 
48,  255),  and  a  great  variety  of  others. 

At  Badeng  (p.  273)  he  saw  a  golden  image  of  Mila- 
raspa  (p.  384). 

In  the  monastery  of  Sam  ye  (p.  448)  he  saw 
images  of  the  Indian  Pandits  who  brought  Buddhism 
into  Tibet,  with  a  vast  number  of  other  images. 

At  Tashi  Lunpo  he  saw  golden  images  of  Buddha 
and  Maitreya,  besides  images  of  1000  other  Buddhas 
(p.  189),  and  the  four  guardians  of  the  quarters  (p.  206). 


492       IMAGES  OF  OTHER   BODHI-SATTVAS    AND   GODS. 

At  Yarlung  he  saw  an  image  of  Vairocana  Buddha, 
besides  images  of  the  sixteen  Sthaviras,  and  a  gigantic 
image  of  the  king  of  the  Nagas,  and  a  terrific  repre- 
sentation of  the  demon  Ravana  (of  the  Ramayana). 

At  MindoUiiig  he  saw  fresco  paintings  of  the  six 
classes  of  beings  (p.  122)  inhabiting  the  six  corres- 
ponding worlds.  Of  course  dehneations  of  the  Jatakas 
(p.  1 1 1)  and  pictures  of  all  kinds  were  common  in  monas- 
teries and  temples  everywhere. 

The  two  wonder-working  images  brought  from  Nepal 
and  China  have  been  already  mentioned  (p.  271). 

As  an  illustration  of  the  monstrous  superstition  and 
idolatry  prevalent  in  modern  Buddhist  countries,  I 
venture,  in  conclusion,  to  quote,  with  abridgment,  the 
following  description  of  an  idol  seen  by  Miss  Bird  in 
Japan  (see  her  '  Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan,'  published 
by  Mr.  Murray): — 

In  one  shrine  is  a  large  idol  spotted  all  over  with  pellets  of  j^aper, 
and  hundreds  of  these  may  be  seen  sticking  to  the  wire-netting  which 
[)rotects  hira.  A  worshipper  writes  his  petition  on  paper,  or,  Letter 
still,  has  it  written  for  him  by  the  priest,  chews  it  to  a  pulp  and  spits 
it  at  the  divinity.  If,  having  been  well  aimed,  it  passes  through  the 
wii-e  and  sticks,  it  is  a  good  omen,  if  it  lodges  in  the  netting  the 
prayer  has  pi'obably  been  unheard. 

On  the  left  there  is  a  shrine  with  a  screen,  to  which  innumerable 
prayers  have  been  tied.  On  the  right  sits  one  of  Buddha's  original 
sixteen  disciples  (see  p.  47  of  these  Lectures).  A  Koolie  with  a 
swelled  knee  applied  it  to  the  knee  of  the  idol,  while  one  with 
inflamed  eyelids  rubbed  his  eyelids  on  it ! 


LECTURE  XYII. 

Sacred  Objects. 

Next  to  the  subject  of  images  and  idols  comes  that 
of  certain  sacred  objects  which  Buddliists  of  all  Schools 
—whether  adherents  of  the  Hina-yana  or  Maha-yana 
systems — hold  in  veneration  ;  for  example,  relics,  relic- 
receptacles  or  Stupas,  foot-prints,  trees,  utensils,  bells, 
symbols,  and  animals. 

The  narratives  of  the  Chinese  travellers,  frequentlv 
mentioned  before,  teem  with  descriptions  of  such  ob- 
jects. Take,  for  instance,  Fa-hien's  account  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Nagara,  near  Peshawar  in  Northern  India 
(Legge,  34-40),  in  which  several  sacred  objects  are 
stated  to  exist — such  as  a  fragment  of  Buddha's  skull, 
one  of  his  teeth,  portions  of  his  hair  and  nails,  his  alms- 
bowl,  his  staff  (contained  in  a  wooden  tube,  so  heavy 
that  even  a  thousand  men  could  not  hft  it),  his  robe, 
and  the  impression  of  his  shadow.  This  was  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century  of  our  era. 

Fa-hien  s  statements  are  confirmed  by  Sung-Yun,  the 
next  Chinese  traveller  mentioned  before  (p.  161  of  this 
volume  ^),  who  started  on  his  journey  rather  more  than 
a  century  after  Fa-hien. 

We  then  visited  the  Ki-Ka-lam  temple  near  Naaara.     This  contains 
the  yellow  robe  (Kashaya)of  Buddlia  in  thirteen  pieces.     Here  also  is 

^  Observe  that  Sang  Yun,  as  there  given,  is  more  correctly   spelt 
Sung  Yun. 


494     THREE    CLASSES   OF   BUDDHIST    SACRED    OBJECTS. 

the  staff  of  Buddba,  in  a  wooden  case  covered  witli  gold-leaf.  The 
weight  of  this  staff  is  sometimes  so  heavy  that  a  hundred  men  cannot 
raise  it,  and  at  other  times  it  is  so  light  that  one  man  can  lift  it.  In 
the  city  of  Na-kie  (Nagarahara)  is  a  tooth  of  Buddha  and  also  some  of 
liis  hair,  both  of  which  are  contained  in  precious  caskets.  Morning 
and  evening  religious  offerings  are  made  to  them. 

We  next  arrive  at  the  cave  of  Go-pala,  where  is  the  shadow  of 
Buddha.  To  anyone  entering  the  cavern,  and  looking  for  a  long  time 
(or,  from  a  long  distance)  at  the  western  side  of  it  opposite  the  door,  the 
figure,  with  its  characteristic  marks,  appears  ;  on  going  nearer,  it 
gradually  grows  fainter  and  then  disappears.  On  touching  the  place 
where  it  was,  there  is  nothing  but  the  bare  wall.  Gradually  retreat- 
ing, the  figure  begins  to  come  in  view  again,  and  foremost  is  con- 
spicuous that  peculiar  mark  between  the  eyebrows  (urna),  which  is  so 
rare  among  men. 

Before  the  cave  is  a  square  stone,  on  which  is  a  trace  of  Buddha's 
foot  (Beal's  Translation,  p.  cvii,  abridged). 

Hiouen  Thsang,  the  third  traveller,  confirms  the 
statements  of  his  predecessors  in  regard  to  the  relics 
in  this  district,  and  adds  as  follows  : — 

There  is  another  little  Stupa,  made  of  the  seven  precious  substances, 
in  which  is  deposited  the  eye-hall  of  the  Buddha,  large  as  an  Amra 
fruit,  and  bright  and  clear  throughout.  It  is  deposited  in  a  sealed-up 
casket  (Beal,  i.  96). 

It  is  easy  to  perceive  from  the  above  extracts  that 
the  worsliip  of  certain  sacred  objects  connected  with 
tlie  founder  of  Buddhism  had  become  even  in  Fa-hien's 
time  a  marked  feature  of  Buddhism.  In  fact,  the  num- 
ber of  such  objects  increased  so  rapidly  that  before  long 
it  became  usual  to  classify  them  under  three  heads  as 
follow^  : — 

(i)  Saririka  (or  Sarira-dhatu  or  simply  Sarira),  objects 


Compare  Hardy's  '  Monachism,'  p.  212. 


SACEED  OBJECTS.   SACRED  BOOKS.   RELICS.    495 

which  once  formed  part  of  the  Buddha's  body,  such  as 
a  bone,  a  tooth,  a  hair,  a  naih 

(2)  Paribhogika,  *  objects  possessed  or  used  by  the 
Buddha,'  such  as  his  seat,  alms-bowl,  drinking-vessel 
(kumbha),  staff,  vestments,  and  even  his  spittoon. 
Under  this  division  is  placed  the  Bodhi-tree. 

(3)  Uddesika,  objects  worshipped  as  in  some  way 
commemorative  of  the  Buddha  or  of  some  event  or  in- 
cident in  his  life. 

It  would  be  difiScult  to  decide  under  which  of  these 
categories  the  sacred  hooks  containing  the  Buddha's 
Law  are  to  be  placed,  and  yet  they  are  deeply  revered, 
and  at  the  present  day  almost  deified,  as  if  they  were 
intelligent  and  omniscient  beings.  They  are  wrapped 
in  costly  cloth  or  silk,  and  their  names  are  mentioned 
with  the  addition  of  honorific  personal  titles.  Occasion- 
ally such  sacred  books  are  placed  on  a  kind  of  rude  altar, 
near  the  road-side,  that  passers-by  may  place  offerings 
of  money  upon  them'. 

Without  attempting,  therefore,  to  follow  any  parti- 
cular classification,  we  proceed  to  notice  some  of  the 
chief  objects  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  beginning 
with  relics. 

Belies. 

Adoration  of  relics  constitutes  an  imj^ortant  point  of 
difference  between  Buddhism  and  Brfihmanism  ;  for 
Brahmanism  and  its  offspring  Hinduism  are  wholly 
opposed  to  the  practice  of  preserving  the  ashes,  bones, 


'   See  Hardy's  'Eastern  Monachism,'  p.  192. 


496  SACRED    OBJECTS.      RELICS. 

hair,  or  teeth  of  deceased  persons,  however  much  such 
individuals  may  have  been  revered  during  life. 

I  remarked  in  the  course  of  my  travels  through  India 
that  articles  used  by  great  religious  teachers — as,  for 
example,  robes,  wooden  shoes,  and  seats — are  sometimes 
preserved  and  venerated  after  their  death.  All  articles 
of  this  kind,  however,  must,  of  course,  be  removed  from 
the  body  before  actual  decease  ;  for  it  is  well  known 
that,  in  the  minds  of  Hindus,  ideas  of  impurity  are  in- 
separably connected  with  death,  and  contamination  is 
supposed  to  result  from  contact  with  the  corpses  of 
even  a  man's  dearest  relatives.  Nor  is  the  mortal 
frame  ever  held  in  veneration  by  the  Hindus  as  it  was 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  as  it  generally  is  in 
Christian  countries. 

Even  the  living  body  is  regarded  as  a  mass  of  cor- 
ruption, a  thing  to  be  held  in  contempt,  and  a  constant 
impediment  to  sanctity  of  life.  How  much  more  then 
ought  every  part  of  a  dead  body  to  be  got  rid  of  with- 
out delay !  Hence  in  the  present  day  a  corpse  is  burnt, 
and  its  ashes  are  generally  scattered  on  the  surface  of 
sacred  rivers  or  of  the  sea. 

It  is  true  that  the  bodies  of  great  Hindu  ascetics 
and  devotees  are  exempted  from  this  rule.  They  are 
usually  buried — not  burnt.  Not,  however,  because  the 
more  corporeal  frame  is  held  in  greater  veneration,  but 
because  the  bodies  of  the  most  eminent  saints  are  sup- 
posed to  lie  undecomposed  in  a  kind  of  trance,  or  state 
of  intense  ecstatic  meditation  (samadhi). 

The  Buddhist,  too,  is  a  thorough  Hindu  in  contemn- 
ing the  living  body ;  but  when  the  corpse  is  burnt,  he 


SACRED   OBJECTS.      HELICS.  497 

does  not  scatter  the  ashes  on  rivers.  He  takes  measures 
to  preserve  them. 

We  know  that  according  to  the  teaching  of  Brah- 
manism  the  burning  of  a  corpse  is  followed  by  religious 
ceremonies  called  Sraddhas  \     The  o-reater  the  number 

o 

of  Sraddhas  which  a  living  man  is  able  to  perform  in 
behalf  of  his  deceased  relatives,  the  greater  is  the 
benefit  which  accrues  to  their  souls;  and  if  the  dead 
man's  soul  happens  to  be  in  one  of  the  hells,  the  sooner 
it  is  released  from  its  purgatorial  pains. 

A  true  Buddhist,  on  the  other  hand,  considers  all 
such  Sraddhas  as  useless ;  although  it  is  certainly  a 
fact  that  m  the  end  the  more  developed  Buddhism  of 
the  North  invented  similar  ceremonies,  called  Bardo 
(see  pp.  293,  334). 

True  Buddhism,  in  short,  has  only  one  way  of  hon- 
ouring ancestors,  and  only  one  method  of  keeping  alive 
the  memory  of  those  perfected  saints  whose  whole  per- 
sonality has  become  extinct,  and  whose  transition  into 
other  forms  of  life  has  finally  ceased. 

The  calcined  ashes,  or  certain  nnconsumed  portions 
of  the  body — such  as  fragments  of  bone  or  hair  or  nails 
or  teeth — are  deposited  in  relic-shrines. 

Of  course  the  most  sacred  of  all  Buddhist  relics  are 
those  of  the  Buddha  himself.  It  is  said  that  after  the 
cremation  of  his  corpse  the  chief  remains  consisted  of 
four  teeth,  the  two  cheek-bones,  and  fragments  of  the 
skull.  But  it  is  believed  that,  even  before  his  deatli, 
portions  of  his  hair  and  nails  were  preserved  and  placed 


^  See  my  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  303. 
Kk 


498  SACRED    OBJECTS.       RELICS. 

under  Dfigabas  (Stiipas).  One  legend  relates  that  when 
Gautama  had  decided  on  abandoning  all  worldly  asso- 
ciations, his  first  act  was  to  cut  off  the  mass  of  his  hair, 
witli  its  ornament  (cuda-mani),  and  that  these  were 
tiiken  up  by  the  god  Indra  to  the  Trayastrinsa  heaven, 
and  there  placed  under  a  Dfigaba  and  worshipped  by 
the  gods. 

Fa-liien,  in  a  passage  already  alluded  to,  says  that 
in  the  country  of  Nagara  there  is  a  particular  spot 
wlicrc  Buddha  shaved  off  his  hair  and  dipt  his  nails, 
and,  having  done  so,  proceeded  to  erect  a  lofty  mound 
or  Stupa  to  enshrine  them,  as  well  as  to  be  a  model 
for  all  future  Stupas  (p.  504  of  this  volume). 

Ilioucn  Thsang  relates  a  tradition  that  when  the  two 
travelling  merchants  Trapusha  and  Bhallika  (see  p.  40) 
were  converted,  tlie  Euddha  gave  them  at  their  own 
request  some  of  his  own  hair  and  nail-parings,  besides 
his  alms-howl,  staff,  and  a  portion  of  his  clothing,  and 
bade  them  deposit  each  article  in  Stupas  or  Dagabas. 
The  two  merchants,  it  is  narrated,  went  home  to  their 
ov/n  country  and  acquired  an  enormous  stock  of  religious 
merit  by  being  the  fiist  to  erect  a  Stupa  for  the  recep- 
tion of  personal  memorials  of  the  great  Buddha.  Ac- 
cording t(.  a  tradition  the  two  merchants  were  from 
Ihn-ma,  and  the  shrine  which  was  erected  to  receive 
eight  of  his  hairs  afterwards  developed  into  the  great 
liangoon  Dagaba  (Pagoda).  It  may  be  inferred  from  this 
legend  (as  Dr.  Oldenberg  has  already  remarked)  that 
th.-  care  ..f  the  Buddha's  relics,  and  the  institution  of 
ceremonies  in  tlu-ir  honour,  were  in  the  first  instance  left 
to  the  devotion  of  religiously  minded  Buddhist  laymen. 


THE  Buddha's  relics.  499 

'  What  are  we  to  do,'  Ananda  asks  of  the  Master,  when  his  end  is 
drawing  near  \  '  with  the  body  of  the  Perfect  One  T  '  Let  not  the 
honours  due  to  the  body  of  the  Perfect  One  trouble  you,  Ananda. 
Seek  ye  rather  perfection  for  yourselves.  There  are,  Ananda,  wise 
men  among  the  nobles,  the  Brfdmians,  and  the  citizens,  who  believe  in 
the  Perfect  One  ;  they  will  honour  the  body  of  the  Perfect  One.' 

Hiouen  Thsang  (Beal,  ii.  40)  also  states  that  when 
certain  Indian  Eajas,  eight  in  number,  heard  of  the 
Buddha's  death,  they  collected  armies  and  marched 
to  Kusi-nara  (p.  424)  to  seize  portions  of  the  relics; 
but  the  prince  of  Kusi-nara  refused  to  give  them  up. 
In  the  end  the  matter  was  settled  amicably,  and  the 
relics  were  divided,  so  that  each  of  the  eight  princes 
might  take  a  share.  Then  all  departed  to  their  own 
homes,  and  each  prince  built  a  Stupa  over  his  own  por- 
tion of  the  relics.     The  gods  also  took  their  portions. 

Fa-hien  (chap,  xxiii)  alludes  to  the  building  of  the 
eight  Stiipas,  and  adds  that  king  Asoka  destroyed 
them,  and  in  their  place  built  84,000  others — one  for 
the  conservation  of  each  atom  of  the  elements  of  the 
Buddha's  body  ;  the  belief  being  that  the  bodies  of  all 
human  beings  consist  of  that  number  of  elementary  par- 
ticles (see  p.  423).  The  eight-fold  division  is  described 
in  'Buddhist  Suttas,'  pp.  133-136  (S.B. E.  vol.  xi). 

It  appears  probable  that  the  earhest  relics  of  his 
burnt  body  held  in  honour  were  his  teeth  ;  and  of 
these  ao-ain  the  most  celebrated  seem  to  have  been  his 


1  'Maha-p.'  p.  51.  '  Milinda  Pailha,'  p.  177.  'It  is  certainly 
noteworthy,'  says  Oldenberg,  '  that  as  the  care  for  Buddha's  remains  is 
not  represented  as  belonging  to  the  disciples,  so  the  Vinaya  texts  are 
nearly  silent  as  to  the  last  honours  of  the  deceased  monks.  To 
arrange  for  their  cremation  was  probably  committed  to  the  laity.' 

K  k  2 


500  THE   BUDDHA  S   TOOTH-RELTC. 

four  eye-teetli.  One  of  the  four  is  said  to  have  been 
appropriated  by  the  gods  and  another  by  the  Nagas, 
while  the  third  was  taken  to  Gandhara  in  the  north- 
west, and  the  fourth  to  Kalinga  in  the  south-east. 

The  first  two  eye-teeth  have  only  mythical  histories, 
and  little  is  recorded  of  the  third,  but  the  fourth  has 
gone  through  a  series  of  terrestrial  adventures,  which 
have  been  much  written  about  and  would  fill  several 
volumes.  One  of  the  immediate  followers  of  Gautama 
is  said  to  have  gained  possession  of  it  on  the  occasion 
of  the  eight-fold  distribution  of  the  great  sage's  relics 
(p.  499),  and  to  have  conveyed  it  to  a  place  afterwards 
called  Danta-pura,  '  tooth-city  \'  the  capital  of  Kalinga 
(Orissa),  where  it  is  believed  to  have  remained  undis- 
turbed for  about  800  years.  After  that  period  it  was 
seized,  at  the  instigation  of  some  Brahmans,  by  a  power- 
ful Hindu  king  who  reigned  at  Fatal iputra.  Its  vicis- 
situdes and  adventures  for  centuries  afterwards  were 
very  varied.  It  was  conveyed  surreptitiously  to  Ceylon 
about  the  year  3 1 1  of  our  era  by  a  princess  of  Kalinga, 
who  concealed  it  in  her  hair.  There  it  remained  till 
13 1 5,  when  it  was  carried  back  to  Southern  India. 
After  a  time  it  was  taken  back  to  Kandy  in  Ceylon. 
Next  it  was  seized  by  the  Portuguese  and  carried  off  to 
Goa.  Thence  it  was  transported  to  Pegu,  and  finally 
the  precious  tooth-relic  (datha-dhatu),  or  at  least  some 
imitation  of  it,    was   restored  to   the    good   people  of 


^  Subsequently  called  Purl,  and  noted  for  the  worship  of  Jagan-nath 
or  Krishna,  who  became  the  successor  of  Buddha  as  an  object  of 
worship  (see  p.  166  of  this  volume). 


OTHER   EELICS    OF   THE   BUDDHA.  50 1 

Kandy,  where  it  is  still  preserved  by  them  as  a  verit- 
able Palladium,  with  every  possible  precaution  against 
further  outrage,  although  under  the  protecting  a3gis  of 
our  government  its  security  ought  not  any  longer  to  be 
matter  of  anxiety. 

Every  native  of  Ceylon  (Lanka),  whether  Buddhist 
or  Hindu,  seems  to  feel  that  the  welfare  of  his  country 
depends  on  its  careful  conservation.  At  any  rate  the 
Sinhalese  have  placed  their  tooth-temple — called  Da- 
lada  Maligawa — in  the  loveliest  part  of  their  beautiful 
island  (see  p.  454),  amid  richly  wooded  hills,  from  whicli 
may  be  obtained  some  of  the  most  enchanting  views  in 
the  world.  The  eye-tooth  is  in  appearance  like  a  piece 
of  discoloured  ivory  about  two  inches  ^  long,  and 
one  inch  across  in  the  thickest  part.  Indeed,  all  the 
supposed  relics  of  the  Buddha's  body,  and  the  dress  and 
implements  he  used,  are  of  such  a  size  as  to  make  his 
worshippers  believe  that  his  stature  far  exceeded  that 
of  ordinary  men. 

The  tooth  is  enclosed  in  nine  bell-shaped,  jewelled 
golden  cases,  one  within  the  other,  each  locked  by  a 
key,  and  each  key  consigned  to  the  custody  of  a  sepa- 
rate official.  The  interior  cases  increase  in  costliness 
till  the  most  highly  jewelled  of  all  is  reached,  and 
within  this  on  a  golden  lotus  lies  the  reHc.  When  I 
visited  the  tooth- temple  in  1877,  the  cases  were  kept 
within  iron  bars  in  a  dimly-liglited  shrine — redolent 
with  flower-offerings  which  exhaled  an  overpowering 

^  Hardy's  '  Eastern  Monachism,'  p.  224.  The  size  of  the  tooth  does 
not  seem  very  jDreposterous,  on  the  assumption  of  the  truth  of  the 
tradition  that  Gautama  attained  to  the  stature  of  twenty  cuhits. 


502  SACRED    OBJECTS.       RELICS. 

perfume — and  in  the  very  centre  of  the  buildings  of 
the  temple.  When  the  Prince  of  Wales  visited  Kandy 
in  1876,  all  the  oflScials  assembled  to  unlock  the  cases 
and  exhibit  the  treasured  relic. 

A  detailed  account  of  the  tooth  is  given  in  a  book 
called  Dalada-vansa  or  Datha-vansa,  said  to  have  been 
written  originally  in  ancient  Sinhalese  (Elu)  about  the 
year  310  of  our  era,  and  translated  into  the  sacred  Pali 
about  the  year  1200.  This  book  has  been  rendered 
into  English  by  the  late  Sir  Coomara  Swamy.  The 
tooth  is  also  described  in  many  other  Pali  and  Sinhalese 
books,  including  the  Maha-vansa. 

And  here  it  may  be  remarked  that  one  feature  of  the 
Buddha's  relics  was  that  they  gave  forth  on  special  oc- 
casions celestial  light,  and  had  the  power  of  working 
miracles.  Sometimes  a  reverent  circumambulation  of 
the  shrine  wdiich  contained  the  relics  was  believed  to  be 
sufficiently  efficacious  in  stimulating  their  miraculous 
powers.  Sometimes  they  were  taken  out  and  exhi- 
bited. The  following-  extract  from  Ea-hien  reminds  one 
of  what  takes  place  at  Kandy  in  the  present  day : — 

In  the  city  of  He-lo  (the  present  Hidda,  west  of  Peshawar)  there  is 
the  flat-bone  of  Buddha's  skull,  deposited  in  a  Vihara  adorned  all  over 
with  gold-leaf  and  the  seven  sacred  substances.  The  king  of  the 
country  revering  the  bone,  and  anxious  lest  it  should  be  stolen,  has 
.'•elected  eight  individuals  representing  great  families,  and  committed 
to  each  a  teal  with  which  he  should  seal  the  shrine  and  guard  the 
relic.  At  early  dawn  these  men  come,  and  after  each  has  inspected 
his  seal,  they  open  the  door.  This  done  they  wash  their  hands  with 
scented  water,  and  bring  out  the  bone,  which  they  place  on  a  lofty 
platform,  wliere  it  is  supported  on  a  pedestal  of  the  seven  precious 
substances.  Tlie  king  every  morning  makes  his  offerings  and  performs 
his  worship.     The  chiefs  of  the  Vaisyas   also   make   their   offerings. 


RELICS.       CAITYAS,    STUPAS,    DAGABAS.  503 

Then  they  replace  the  Lone  in  the  Viliara,  under  a  Stupa  of  the  seven 
precious  substances  (p.  528  of  this  volume)  more  than  five  cubits  high 
(Legge,  pp.  36-38,  abridged). 

Fa-hien  records  a  similar  exhibition  of  the  Buddha's 
alms-bowl  in  the  country  near  Peshawar  : — 

When  it  is  mid-day  they  bring  out  the  bowl  and  make  offerings  to 
it.  It  may  contain  about  two  pecks,  and  it  has  a  bright  lustre.  "When 
poor  people  throw  into  it  a  few  flowers,  it  becomes  full.  If  the  rich 
throw  in  myriads  of  flowers,  they  are  not  able  to  fill  it. 

He  states  that  the  Buddha's  robe  was  also  broujrht 
out  to  be  worshipped  : — 

When  there  is  a  drought  the  people  collect  in  crowds,  bring  out  the 
robe,  pay  worship  to  it  and  make  offerings,  on  which  there  is  imme- 
diately a  great  rain  from  the  sky  (Legge,  pp.  35,  39,  abridged). 

The  relics  of  all  great  saints  in  Buddhist  countries 
were  revered  in  a  similar  manner.  At  the  same  time 
it  ouglit  to  be  noted  that  the  periodical  exhibition  of 
relics,  before  the  eyes  of  worshippers,  was  not  a  usual 
occurrence  (as  it  is  in  Roman  Catholic  countries).  In- 
deed, as  a  general  rule,  the  custom  seems  to  have  been 
to  shield  the  ashes  and  remains  of  revered  dead  bodies 
from  observation  and  liability  to  be  touched.  Hence 
they  were  commonly  sealed  up  hermetically,  as  it  were, 
in  the  interior  of  receptacles  which  effectually  concealed 
them  from  view  and  protected  them  from  disturbance. 

And  this  leads  us  to  advert  to  the  form  and  character 
of  Buddhist  relic-receptacles. 

It  is  probable  that  at  a  very  early  period,  and  even 
before  the  Buddha's  time,  the  Hindus  were  accustomed 
to  raise  heaps  or  tumuli  over  the  ashes  of  kings,  great 
men,  saints  and  sages,  just  as  even  to  this  day  among 
the  Sikhs  of  the  Panjab,  the  ashes  of  great  men  are  so 


504  CAITYAS,    STUPAS,    DAGABAS. 

honoured.  Some  tliink  that  the  hemispherical  dome- 
like form  of  the  tumulus  was  intended  to  represent  a 
bubble — the  most  transitory  of  all  material  objects.  In 
all  likelihood  the  dome  of  the  Sanchi  Stupa — which  is 
thought  to  be  as  old  as  the  time  of  Buddha — was  con- 
structed in  memory  of  some  great  man. 

Such  heaps  were  at  first  generally  called  Caityas, 
and  afterwards  Sttipas  (from  the  Sanskrit  roots  ci 
and  styai,  meaning  '  to  heap  together ' ) ;  but  Caitya 
ultimately  denoted  a  relic-structure  in  an  assembly- 
hall  (see  p.  450),  while  the  word  Stupa  denoted  one  in 
the  open  air.  Then  inside  the  Caitya  or  Stupa  (Pali 
Thupa,  corrupted  into  Tope)  there  was  a  casket — 
made  of  silver,  gold,  stone,  earthenware,  etc. — in  which 
were  deposited  the  ashes,  fragments  of  bone,  or  the 
teeth  or  nails  of  the  deceased.  And  this  relic-casket 
was  called  in  Sanskrit  Dhatu-garbha,  or  m  Pali  Dagaba 
(corrupted  into  Dagoba  and  afterwards  into  Pagoda) — 
that  is,  a  repository  of  the  elementary  particles  of  which 
all  bodies  are  composed. 

Then  in  time  the  word  Dagaba  (Pagoda)  denoted  the 
monument  as  well  as  the  relic-casket.  Moreover  Caityas 
and  Stupas  were  often  mere  pyramidal  structures, 
enshrining  images  or  marking  important  events  (see 
p.  390),  but  not  containing  relics.  Among  the  Hindus 
Caitya  often  denotes  the  sacred  village-tree  planted  on 
a  mound. 

The  process  by  which  the  simple  Caitya  or  mound 
developed  into  more  elaborate  structures  is  remarkable. 
First  came  erections  of  stone  or  brick,  generally  bell- 
shaped    or   domed   like    bee-hives.      These    again   ex- 


TOTIVE   STtTPA,  EECENTiT  FOTJND   AT  BUDDHA-GATA. 
(Date  about  ninth  or  tenth  centiiry  of  our  era.) 


[To  face  page  505. 


<5aityas,  stupas,  dagabas.  505 

panded  into  elongated  pyramidal  structures,  springing 
from  cylindrical  or  octagonal  or  hexagonal  bases,  and  or- 
namented with  images  of  Gautama,  and  resting  on  plinth- 
like foundations,  the  summits  tapering  into  finials  consist- 
ing of  three,  or  seven,  or  nine,  or  eleven,  or  even  fifteen 
tiers  of  umbrella-shaped  ornaments  (see  note,  p.  393). 

Then,again,in  time,  these  elaborate  Dagabas  expanded 
into  vast  Pagodas  of  enormous  height,  as,  for  example, 
the  Eangoon  Pagoda  (see  p.  456)  and  that  at  Anuradha- 
pura  in  Ceylon. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  in  early  Buddhism  Caityas 
and  Stupas  were  ever  empty  monuments  or  cenotaphs. 
Probably  all  of  them  contained  ashes,  fragments  of 
bone,  teeth,  or  hair,  though  in  some  cases  the  most 
careful  examination  has  failed  to  discover  the  vessel 
in  which  they  were  deposited.  If  made  of  fragile 
materials,  it  rapidly  crumbled  into  dust.  But  Stupas, 
even  without  relics,  were  themselves  objects  of  rever- 
ence. 

In  the  later  period  of  Buddhism  the  practice  of 
carving,  or  moulding  mere  memorial  or  votive  Stupas, 
and  dedicating  them  at  sacred  spots  became  common. 
The  examples  of  this  kind  of  Stupa  which  I  saw  un- 
earthed at  Buddha-Gaya  have  been  described  (p.  397). 

The  engraving  opposite  to  this  page  is  a  copy  of 
one  of  these  votive  Stupas  which  I  procured  for  the 
Indian  Institute  through  Mr.  Beglar. 

At  Mandalay  there  is  a  large  Pagoda  with  al)out 
620  smaller  ones  round  it  (in  rows  of  six  or  seven  deep). 
Each  small  Pagoda  enshrines  a  tablet — exposed  to 
view — on  which  some  portion  of  the  Law  is  engraved. 


506      MODEL  VOTIVE    STUPAS,    SACKED    FOOT-PRINTS. 

Many  small  Pagodas  are  simply  canopies  of  brick  or 
some  solid  material  erected  over  images. 

Outside  the  Buddhist  convent  near  Darjiling,  when 
I  visited  it  in  1884,  a  monk  was  roughly  moulding 
a  number  of  small  votive  Stupas  in  clay,  with  which 
lie  was  probably  mixing  the  powdered  bones  of  some 
deceased  Lama.  Here  is  a  copy  of  one  exactly  the  size 
of  the  original : — 


If  broken  open,  a  terra-cotta  seal,  inscribed  with  some 
sacred  formula,  would  probably  be  found  inside. 

Of  course  most  of  the  Buddha's  chief  disciples,  such 
as  Sariputta,  Maudgalyayana,  Kasyajoa,  Ananda,  Upali, 
each  had  Stupas  erected  over  their  relics. 

Sacred  Foot-'prints. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  worship  of  relics  is  that 
of  foot-prints  (Sanskrit  Sri-pada  or  Sri-pada).  Every- 
where throughout  Buddhist  countries  the  supposed 
impressions  of  the  Buddha's  feet  are  as  much  honoured 
as  those  of  the  god  Vishnu  are  by  Vaishnavas. 


SACRED   FOOT-PRINTS.  507 

When  Fa-hien  reached  Gridhra-kuta  (see  pp.  404, 
406),  he  is  said  to  have  used  words  to  the  followino- 
effect:  '  I,  Fa-hien,  was  born  when  I  could  not  meet 
with  Baddha,  and  now  I  only  see  the  foot-prints  which 
he  has  left'  (Legge,  83). 

It  is  well  known  that  the  practice  of  bowing  down 
and  honouring  the  feet  is  a  thoroughly  Asiatic  custom. 
The  idea  seems  to  be  derived  from  a  kind  of  a  fortiori 
argument.  If  the  feet,  as  the  lowest  member  of  the 
body,  are  honoured,  how  much  more  is  homage  ren- 
dered to  the  whole  man.  Hence  children  honour 
their  parents,  not  by  kissing  their  faces,  but  by  pros- 
tratinof  themselves  at  their  feet  and  touching:  them 
reverentially.  Another  reason  for  venerating  the  feet 
is  well  expressed  in  one  of  our  hymns  : — 

0  let  me  see  Thy  foot-marks. 
And  in  them  plant  my  own ; 

and  in  Longfellow's 

Foot-prints  on  the  sands  of  time ; 
Foot-f)rints  which  perhaps  another, 

Sailing  o'er  life's  solemn  main, 
A  forlorn  and  shipwrecked  brother, 

Seeing  may  take  life  again. 

This  shows  that  even  Europeans  are  flimiliar  with 
the  idea.  There  is  a  Eoman  Catholic  church  at 
Vienna  which  possesses  a  celebrated  image  of  Christ 
on  the  Cross.  On  one  occasion  I  visited  this  church 
and  observed  several  worshippers  kissing  the  feet  of 
the  image,  while  others — too  short  in  stature  to  reach 
it  with  their  lips — touched  its  feet  with  their  fingers 
and  then  kissed  their  fingers.    A  similar  honour  is  paid 


508  SACKED   FOOT-PRINTS. 

to  the  imacres  of  St.  Peter  at  Kome,  and  indeed  to  that 
Apostle's  living  representatives.  The  alleged  foot-prints 
of  Christ  are  not  numerous^  but  they  exist  in  certain 
holy  places^. 

Every  sentiment  in  the  East  is  exaggerated,  and  it 
need  not  therefore  be  matter  of  wonder  if  a  vener- 
ation for  foot-prints  has  led  to  an  excessive  multiplica- 
tion of  these  symbols,  and  to  an  excess  of  superstitious 
worship  paid  to  them  by  Hindus  of  various  sects  in 
every  part  of  India.  No  true  Vaislmava  will  leave 
his  house  in  the  morning  without  marking  his  forehead 
with  the  symbol  of  Vishnu's  feet.  In  travelling  from 
one  place  to  another  I  often  came  across  what  appeared 
to  be  an  empty  shrine,  but  on  a  close  inspection  I  found 
that  it  contained  two  foot-prints  on  a  little  raised  altar 
made  of  stone.  These  are  called  Paduka  '  shoes,'  but 
are  really  the  supposed  impressions  of  the  soles  of  the 
feet  of  the  person  to  whom  the  shrines  are  dedicated. 
In  1876  I  visited  the  celebrated  Vishnu-pad  temple  at 
Gaya,  Crowds  were  worshipping  the  foot-mark  im- 
pressed on  the  bare  stone,  but  concealed  by  offerings, 
and  surrounded  by  a  silver  fence  under  a  silver  canopy 
(see  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  309). 

It  is  true  that  Buddhists  never  imitate  the  practice 


^  Mr.  Lesley,  in  hio  '  Lectures  on  the  Origin  and  Destiny  of  Man,' 
states  that  there  are  two  foot-prints  sculptured  on  the  summit  of 
Mount  Olivet,  and  worshipped  by  pilgrims  as  the  marks  left  when 
Christ  sprang  into  the  sky  at  His  ascension.  There  is  another  alleged 
foot-print  of  Christ  in  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  and  two  foot-prints  at 
Poitiers  in  France.  There  are  two  foot-prints  of  Ishmael  in  the 
temple  at  Mecca.     This  is  mentioned  by  Mr.  Alabaster  (p.  262). 


SACRED    FOOT-PRINTS.  509 

of  the  worshippers  of  Vishnu  by  marking  their  fore- 
heads with  the  supposed  impressions  of  the  Buddha's 
feet,  but  they  will  nevertheless  make  long  and  toilsome 
pilgrimages  to  bow  down  before  what  they  believe  to 
be  the  impression  of  his  foot  on  a  rock. 

The  Jainas,  who  are  the  only  Hindu  representatives 
of  the  Buddhistic  system  left  in  India,  are  quite  as 
ardent  foot-print  worshippers.  In  1884  I  ascended 
Mount  Parasnath  (Parsva-nath)  in  Bengal  at  the 
same  time  with  crowds  of  Jaina  pilgrims  who,  like 
myself,  toiled  up  the  hill  to  visit  the  numerous 
Jaina  temples  scattered  over  the  uneven  surface  a,t  the 
summit,  some  five  thousand  feet  above  the  plain.  Our 
objects  were  very  different.  Theirs  was  the  acquisition 
of  merit,  mine  was  the  acquirement  of  knowledge. 
Lepers  lined  the  rough  pathway,  and  much  additional 
merit  was  held  to  accrue  to  the  pilgrims  by  distributing 
alms  among  them.  I  found  that  nearly  every  shrine 
at  the  summit  consisted  of  a  little  domed  canopy  of 
marble,  covering  two  foot-prints  of  some  one  of  the 
twenty-four  Jaina  saints  (especially  Prirsva-nath)  im- 
pressed on  a  marble  altar.  The  soles  of  the  supposed 
foot-prints  were  either  white  or  black  and  marked  with 
small  gilded  circles. 

Groups  of  worshippers  bowed  down  before  the  shrines 
and  deposited  offerings  of  money,  rice,  ahnonds,  raisins, 
and  spices  on  the  foot-marks.  No  sooner  did  they 
quit  one  shrine  for  the  next,  than  a  troop  of  frolicking 
monkeys  promptly  took  their  place  and  scampered  off 
with  the  edible  portion  of  the  objects  offered. 

It   is   impossible    to    state    positively   when    cither 


5IO  SACKED    FOOT-PRINTS. 

Buddliism  or  Jainism  first  introduced  foot-print  wor- 
ship, but  tlie  practice  must  have  begun  very  early. 

With  regard  to  this  point  General  Sir  A.  Cunning- 
ham, in  his  account  of  the  Bharhut  Stupa — a  Sfcupa 
which  dates  from  the  second  century  b.  c. — says  :  — 

Foot-prints  of  Buddha  were  most  probably  an  object  of  reverence 
from  a  very  early  period — certainly  before  the  building  of  the  Bharhut 
Stupa — as  they  are  represented  in  two  sej)arate  sculptures  there.  In 
the  first  sculpture  the  foot-prints  are  placed  on  a  throne  or  altar, 
canopied  by  an  umbrella,  hung  with  garlands.  A  royal  personage  is 
kneeling  before  the  altar,  and  reverently  touching  the  foot-prints  with 
his  hands.  The  second  examjile  is  in  the  bas-relief  representing  the 
visit  of  Ajata-satru  to  Buddha.  Here,  as  in  all  other  Bharhut  sculp- 
tures, Buddha  does  not  appear  in  person,  his  presence  being  marked 
by  his  two  foot-prints.  The  wheel  symbol  is  duly  marked  on  both 
(p.  112,  abridged). 

The  General  justly  remarks  that  perhaps  the  worship 
of  the  Buddha's  foot-prints  may  have  sprung  up  in 
imitation  of  the  homage  alleged  to  have  been  paid  by 
Maha-Kasya23a  and  500  monks  to  his  feet,  which,  it 
is  said,  were  exposed  to  view  when  his  body  was 
lying  on  the  funeral  pile.  The  legend  states  that 
while  the  monks  were  in  the  act  of  bowing  down  in 
adoration  before  the  feet,  the  funeral  pile  ignited  spon- 
taneously. 

On  one  of  the  gate-pillars  of  the  ancient  Sanchi  Stiipa 
there  is  a  sculpture  of  a  foot-print  marked  with  the 
wheel  (Cakra,  p.  5  2  2)  symbol,  which  the  late  Mr.  Fergusson 
ascribed  to  the  early  part  of  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  era. 

There  are  also  sculptured  representations  of  the 
Buddha's  foot-prints  at  Amaravati,  supposed  to  date 


SACRED    FOOT-PRINTS. 


511 


from  the  second  or  third  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
These  representations  are  often  carved  on  so-called  altars 
or  else  placed  before  altars. 

But  of  all  foot-prints,  that  on  Adam's  Peak  (the 
highest  mountain  in  Ceylon,  more  than  7000  feet  above 
the  sea),  supposed  to  have  been  left  by  the  Buddha 
when  he  ascended  thence  to  heaven,  is  the  most  cele- 
brated. 

According  to  Fa-hien  (Legge,  p.  102),  when  Buddlia 
was  in  Ceylon  he  planted  one  foot  on  the  north  of  the 
royal  city  and  the  other  on  Sumana-Kuta  (Adam's 
Peak),  fifteen  yojanas,  or  about  a  hundred  miles,  distant. 

This  fancied  impression  of  the  Buddha's  foot  (believed 
by  Christians  to  be  that  of  St.  Thomas,  by  Muharn- 
madans  to  be  that  of  Adam,  and  by  Hindus  to  be  that 
of  the  god  Siva)  is  merely  a  shapeless  hollow  in  the 
rock,  five  feet  seven  inches  long  by  two  feet  seven 
inches  broad,  which  would  give  the  Buddha  a  stature 
of  about  thirty-five  feet.  It  is  said  to  have  been  dis- 
covered by  a  hunter  at  the  beginning  of  the  centurv 
before  Christ,  and,  although  very  difficult  of  access,  is 
annually  visited  by  about  100,000  Buddhist  pilgrims. 
Near  it,  on  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  is  a  sm;dl 
temple  dedicated  to  Saman  (p.  2 1 7). 

In  a  shrine  near  the  tooth-temple  at  Kandy,  I  saw 
a  so-called  facsimile  of  this  f  )ot-print.  Those  who  are 
physically  incapable  of  toiling  up  the  mountain  to  bow 
down  before  the  sacred  impression  on  the  rock,  gain 
nearly  as  much  merit  by  worshipping  its  cojiy.  The 
shrine  was  filled  with  fragrant  flowers  recently  de- 
posited on  the  facsimile. 


512  SACRED    FOOT-PRINTS. 

Other  foot-prints  in  various  places  throughout  India, 
Burma,  Siam,  Tibet,  Mongolia,  and  China,  are  from 
two  to  five  feet  long.  A  tradition  is  mentioned  by 
Fa-hien  (Legge,  29)  that,  when  Buddha  visited  North- 
ern India,  he  came  to  the  country  of  Woo-chang  or 
Udyana,  and  there  he  left  a  print  of  his  foot,  which 
appears  long  or  short  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  be- 
holders. 

Another  legend  states  that  Buddha  left  the  print  of 
his  left  foot  on  Adam's  Peak,  and  then,  in  one  stride, 
strode  across  to  Siam,  where  he  left  the  impression  of 
his  right  foot. 

The  Siamese  hold  their  foot-print  in  as  much  rever- 
ence as  the  Sinhalese  hold  theirs.  It  is  called  Phra 
Bat,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Alabaster,  its  appearance  is 
like  that  of  the  foot-print  on  Adam's  Peak.  Nothing 
is  to  be  seen  but  a  hole  in  the  rock,  about  five  feet  long 
by  two  broad.  A  temple  is  built  over  it,  and  every 
precaution  taken  to  protect  it  from  over-zealous  wor- 
shippers. Mr.  Alabaster  thus  describes  his  visit  to 
this  sacred  s^iot : — 


The  grating  which  usually  covers  the  foot-print  was  removed  to 
enable  us  to  see  the  bottom,  but  the  temple  was  so  dark  that  we  could 
not  see  much  of  it.  We  moved  aside  some  of  the  offerings  lying  on 
it,  but  could  see  nothing  of  the  pattern  except  the  five  marks  of  the 
toe-nails — five  grooves  in  the  rock — which  some  declare  to  have  been 
made  with  chisels.  On  inquiry  we  were  told  that  the  other  marks 
were  long  ago  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire.  Likeness  to  a  foot 
there  is  none.  Yet  to  this  holy  foot-print  year  after  year  crowds  of 
Siamese  flock  with  varied  offerings,  and  even  the  most  enlightened 
amongst  them — the  late  King  for  instance — have  observed  and 
encouraged  the  practice.     ('  Wheel  of  the  Law,'  p.  284,  abridged.) 


SACRED   FOOT-PRINTS.  513 

The  soles  of  the  Buddha's  feet  are  represented  as 
quite  flat,  and  all  the  toes  of  equal  length.  Each  sole 
possesses,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  20),  one  hundred  and 
eight  auspicious  marks  (mangala-lakkhana),  and  of  these 
the  principal  is  generally  the  wheel  ((5akra),  while 
around  it  are  grouped  representations  of  animals, 
inhabitants  of  various  worlds,  and  symbols  of  different 
kinds.  In  all  probability  the  idea  is  that  all  things 
are  subject  to  the  Buddha  or  belong  to  him  ;  they 
are  therefore  metaphorically  placed  under  his  feet. 
(Compare  the  metaphor  in  Psalm  viii.  6-8.) 

The  one  hundred  and  eight  marks  vary  in  various 
specimens.  A  good  typical  example  {brought  from 
Burma)  of  the  impression  of  one  foot  may  be  seen  in 
the  British  Museum.  The  sole  is  divided  into  com- 
partments, each  compartment  containing  a  mark.  There 
are  five  conch-shells,  one  in  each  of  the  five  toes,  this 
symbol  being  highly  esteemed  by  Buddhists  as  well  as 
by  Hindus. 

Among  the  one  hundred  and  eight  auspicious  marks 
on  the  Siamese  foot-print  are  the  following : — A  spear, 
trident  (tri-ratna),  book,  elephant-goad,  Indra's  elephant, 
dragon  (makara),  ocean,  golden  ship,  water  with  lotuses, 
conch-shell,  four-faced  Brahma,  umbrella,  king  of  Xagas, 
king  of  horses,  of  tigers,  of  birds,  sun,  moon,  ten 
mountains,  peacock,  flag  of  victory,  deer,  fish,  water-jar. 
The  wheel  (Cakra)  does  not  occur  in  Mr.  Alabaster's 
list  ('Wheel  of  the  Law,'  p.  290),  but  the  two  feet  of 
the  Amaravati  Stupa,  described  by  Mr.  Feigusson,  have 
a  wheel  in  the  centre  of  the  soles.  Above  is  the 
Tri-ratna  emblem  with  a  Svastika  symbol  on  each  side. 

l1 


514  SACRED    TREES. 

There  are  other  Svastika  marks,  and  others  on  the  toes 
(see  p.  523). 

The  Skanda-Purana  and  Bhagavata-Pnrana  give 
similar  hsts  of  marks  on  the  sole  of  Vishnu's  foot. 

Sacred  Trees. 

We  now  pass  on  to  a  brief  consideration  of  sacred 
trees.  Most  persons  are  aware  that  the  homage  offered 
to  trees  and  plants  is  not  confined  to  Buddhism.  It 
existed  very  early  in  Brahmanism  and  is  still  common 
everywhere  throughout  India  (see  my  'Brahmanism  and 
Hinduism,'  p.  330). 

In  point  of  fact  various  forms  of  tree-worship  prevail 
at  the  present  moment  in  almost  every  part  of  the 
world  where  superstition  and  ignorance  are  ruling 
influences.  Nor  can  we  really  condemn,  as  either 
unnatural  or  unreasonable,  the  feeling  of  veneration 
with  which  trees  are  generally  regarded,  bearing  in 
mind  the  grateful  shade  and  shelter  Avhich  they  afford, 
the  beauty  of  their  foliage,  their  importance  as  purifiers 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  hundreds  of  useful  jourposes 
to  which  their  wood,  leaves,  and  fruit  are  applicable. 
According  to  Dr.  E.  B.  Tylor  ('Primitive  Culture,'  ii. 
223),  the  North  American  Indians  of  the  Far  West 
often  hang  offerings  on  the  trees  to  propitiate  the  spirits 
and  procure  good  weather  and  good  hunting.  He  adds 
that  Mr.  Darwin  describes  the  South  Americans  as  doing 
much  the  same. 

In  Persia  and  other  Eastern  Countries  trees  may  often 
be  met  with,  the  branches  of  which  have  been  recently 
hung  with  offerings  of  cloth,  rags,  and  even  garments. 


SACRED   TREES.  515 

In  India  the  notion  of  trees  being  inhabited  by 
deities  or  semi-divine  beings  or  spirits  is  to  this  day 
very  common,  and  we  have  already  noted  (p.  1 1 2)  that 
during  the  period  of  Gautama's  Bodhi-sattvaship,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  had  to  undergo  countless  births  in 
preparation  for  his  Buddhahood,  he  was  born  forty-three 
times  as  a  tree-god. 

In  Siam,  according  to  Mr.  Alabaster,  offerings  are 
commonly  made  in  the  present  day  to  the  spirits  or 
deities  inhabiting  trees.  People  hang  various  votive 
objects  on  the  branches,  or  place  them  on  a  stand  or 
altar  beneath  any  particular  tree  whose  deity  they  wish 
to  projDitiate.  Moreover  they  are  very  averse  to  the 
cutting  down  of  any  trees  of  any  kind,  lest  the  tree- 
gods  should  be  angry. 

'  Some  years  ago,'  says  Mr.  Alabaster,  '  when  I  employed  my  spare 
energy  in  showing  the  Siamese  how  to  make  roads  in  the,  till  then, 
roadless  suburbs  of  Bangkok,  I  had  to  cut  my  lines  through  villages, 
temple  -  groves,  orchards,  plantations,  and  patches  of  jungle.  For 
the  "  wicked  "  duty  of  cutting  down  the  trees,  a  gang  of  the  lowest 
criminals  was  placed  at  my  disposal.'  But  he  adds  that  the  i-emoval  of 
any  specially  holy  building  or  tree  was  interdicted  by  the  Government. 

We  have  already  seen  that,  according  to  the  theory  of 
later  Buddliism,  every  Buddha  is  supposed  to  have  his 
own  special  tree  under  which  he  sat  and  meditated,  and 
in  the  end  attained  supreme  knowledge  (see  p.  136). 
For  example,  there  is  the  Pippala  (also  called  Asvattha, 
Ficus  Religiosa)  sacred  fig-tree  of  Gautama  Buddha,  the 
Vata  or  Banyan-tree  {Ficus  Indica)  of  Kasyapa  Buddha, 
the  Udumbara  {Ficus  Glomerata)  of  Kanaka-muni ;  the 
Sirisha  {Acacia  Serisa)  of  Kraku-Cclianda  ;  the  Silla 
{Shorea  Rolusta)  of  Visva-bhu;  the  Pundarika  {^Yh'^te 

l1  2 


5l6  SACRED    TEEES. 

Lotus)  of  Sikhiii  ^ ;  the  Patali  {Bignonia  Suaveolens)  of 
Vipasyin. 

These  six  Buddhas  with  Gautama  are  sometimes  held 
to  be  the  seven  principal  Buddhas,  and,  according  to 
some  authorities,  the  tree  of  the  future  Buddha 
(Maitreya)  will  be  the  Iron- wood  tree  (Sideroxylon)-. 
Specimens  of  some  of  these  trees  are  to  be  found 
growing  in  the  area  of  the  Buddha-Gaya  temple,  and 
several  are  represented  in  the  sculptures  of  the  Stupa  of 
Bharhut  (of  the  second  century  B.C.).  On  one  of  the 
pillars  of  that  Sttipa  elephants  are  carved  in  the  act  of 
worshipping  both  the  Pipal-tree  and  the  Banyan-tree. 
In  fact  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  Gautama 
Buddha  is  said  to  have  meditated  under  both  of  these 
trees,  and  is  therefore  connected  with  both  (see  p.  39). 

It  might  have  been  expected,  too,  that  the  Sal-tree 
would  have  ranked  next  in  sacredness  to  the  Pipal  and 
Banyan ;  for  according  to  one  legend,  Maya  gave  birth 
to  Gautama  while  standing  under  a  Sal-tree,  and 
according  to  another  legend,  Gautama  died  on  a  couch 
placed  between  two  Sal-trees  (pp.  23,  50).  This  tree, 
however,  appears  to  be  more  honoured  in  connexion 
with  the  Buddha  Visva-bhu  (p.  136,  note  i). 

There  are  other  trees  which  were  held  in  veneration 
by  Indian  Buddhists  : — for  example,  the  Mango  (Amra) 
and  the  Jambu,  and  the  Asoka.  The  first  of  these 
appears  frequently  in  sculptures,  and  is  known  by  the 
shape  of  its  fruit. 

^  Or  according  to  some  the  Salmali  or  Silk-cotton  tree  (Simal). 
"  Speuce  Hardy's  '  Eastern  Monachism,'  p.  215. 


SACRED    TREES.  517 

Two  other  trees  under  which  the  Buddha  is  said  to 
liave  meditated  after  his  attainment  of  Buddhahood — 
namely,  the  Mucalin da-tree^  and  the  Raj fiyatana- tree — 
are  not  identified. 

But  among  all  trees  revered  by  all  Buddliists  of 
all  nationalities,  the  Asvattha  or  Pippala  (Pipal),  under 
which  Gautama  achieved  Buddhahood  and  perfect 
knowledge,  takes  the  precedence.  In  some  Buddhist 
countries  the  climate  prevents  its  introduction,  but  if  it 
can  by  any  means  be  made  to  grow,  it  is  everywhere 
planted  close  to  Buddhist  temples,  monasteries  and 
Dagabas,  and  in  many  cases  is  the  product  of  a  seed 
brought  from  the  supposed  original  tree  at  Buddha-Gayfi. 

A  tradition  relates  that  Gautama  during  his  lifetime 
directed  Ananda  to  break  off  a  branch  from  that 
original  tree  and  to  plant  it  in  the  garden  of  the 
Vihara,  or  monastery,  at  oravasti — Gautama's  favourite 
place  of  residence — 'He  who  worships  it,'  said  Gautama, 
'  will  receive  the  same  reward  as  if  he  worshipped  me  -.' 

This  is  a  mere  legend  resting  on  no  historical  basis ; 
but  the  tradition  which  makes  Gautama  choose  a  seat 
under  the  sacred  Pippala  or  Asvattha  as  the  spot  where 
the  first  stirrings  of  a  divine  afflatus  and  the  first 
whisperings  of  divine  communications — symbolized  by 
the  mysterious  quivering  and  rustling  of  its  leaves — 


'  I  conjecture  that  the  Mucaliuda-tree  may  have  been  the  Sandal, 
for  it  is  described  in  Sanskrit  literature  as  infested  by  snakes.  The 
fact  of  a  serpent  having  emerged  from  the  roots  of  this  tree  and  pro- 
tected the  Buddha  instead  of  injuring  him,  may  account  for  the  sacred 
character  of  the  sandal-wood  statue  (see  p.  408). 

2  Hardy's  'Eastern  Monachism,'  p.  212. 


5l8  SACRED    TREES. 

were  likely  to  make  themselves  felt,  points  to  a  prob- 
able fact — a  fact  quite  in  harmony  with  what  we  have 
already  noted  in  regard  to  his  early  Erahmanical 
education  and  ideas.  We  read  in  the  Katha  Upanishad 
(VI.  i)  that  the  root  of  the  Asvattha-tree  was  identified 
with  the  Supreme  Being,  Brahman.  In  a  passage  of 
the  Mundaka  Upanishad  (III.  i.  i)  and  in  a  Mantra  of 
the  Big-veda  (I.  164.  20)  the  same  idea  is  alluded  to. 
It  is  true  that  Gautama  afterwards  repudiated  the 
possibility  of  any  divine  inspiration  coming  from  any 
external  source  whatever,  yet  it  is  probable  that  when 
he  first  seated  himself  under  the  sacred  fig-tree,  which 
is  even  now  regarded  by  the  Hindus  as  a  manifestation 
of  the  god  Brahma,  he  expected  supernatural  communi- 
cations of  some  kind  ^ 

The  history  of  the  original  sacred  Pippala  (Asvattha) 
tree,  or  as  it  is  commonly  called  the  Bodhi-tree  (Bo- 
tree)  of  Gautama  Buddha  at  Buddha  -  Gaya,  has 
already  been  sketched  in  a  previous  Lecture  (see  pp. 

392-394). 

Hiouen  Thsang's  description  of  the  tree,  as  he  saw  it 
in  the  seventh  century,  has  also  been  given  (see  p.  399). 
Fa-hien,  who  saw  it  at  Buddha -Gaya  in  the  fifth 
century,  calls  it  the  Patra-tree.  The  following  is  an 
abridgement  of  what  he  says  about  it : — 

The  Bodhi-sattva  advanced  to  the  Patra-tree,  placed  the  Kusa  grass 
at  the  foot  of  it,  and  sat  down  with  his  face  to  the  east.     Then  King 

^  I  noticed  a  fine  specimen  of  this  tree  growing  in  the  courtj'ard  of 
the  temple  of  the  god  Brahma  at  Pokhar,  near  Ajmere,  visited  by  me 
in  1884.  Near  it  were  two  Banyan  trees,  a  Nim  tree,  and  Asoka 
tree.     Brahma's  other  temple  at  Idar  was  not  visited  by  me. 


SACRED   TREES,  cjo 

Mara  sent  three  beautiful  damsels  to  tempt  him.  The  Bodhl-sattva 
put  his  toes  down  to  the  ground,  and  the  young  maidens  were  changed 
into  old  grandmothers.  Buddha,  after  attaining  perfect  wisdom,  coq- 
templated  the  tree  for  seven  days  (Legge,  p.  88). 

Fa-hien  also  saw  the  offspring  of  the  original  Bodhi- 
tree  growing  in  Ceylon  (Legge,  p.  103). 

It  is  recorded  that  soon  after  Mahinda,  son  of  Asoka, 
arrived  in  Ceylon  (about  250  B.C.)  for  the  purpose  of 
propagating  Buddhism,  his  sister,  who  had  become 
a  Buddhist  Nun,  also  arrived  there,  and  brought  with 
her  from  King  Asoka  a  branch  of  the  sacred  Bodhi-tree 
of  Buddha-Gaya.  This  was  planted  at  Anuradha-pura, 
and  the  zealous  Buddhists  of  Ceylon  fully  believe  that 
the  identical  tree  exists  there  still. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  state  of  this  tree  or  its 
descendant,  about  thirty  years  ago,  is  given  in  Sir 
Emerson  Tennant's  'Ceylon'  (vol.  ii.  p.  6 1 3).  I  here  give 
an  abridged  extract : — 

The  Bo-tree  of  Anuradha-pura  is  in  all  probability  the  oldest 
historical  tx'ee  in  the  world.  Its  conservancy  has  been  an  object  of 
solicitude  to  successive  dynasties,  and  the  story  of  its  vicissitudes  has 
been  preserved  in  a  series  of  continuous  chronicles. 

It  would  almost  seem  to  verify  the  prophecy  pronounced  when  it 
was  planted,  that  it  would  flourish  and  be  green  for  ever. 

The  degree  of  sanctity  with  which  this  extraordinary  tree  has  been 
invested  by  Buddhists,  may  be  compared  to  the  feeling  of  veneration 
with  which  Christians  regard  the  attested  wood  of  the  Cross. 

The  other  Bo-trees  which  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  every  temple  in 
Ceylon  are  said  to  be  all  derived  from  the  parent-tree  at  Anuradlia- 
pura,  but  they  have  been  propagated  by  seeds;  the  jiriesthood 
adhering  in  this  respect  to  the  precedent  recorded  in  the  Malia-vansa 
(when  Mahinda  himself,  taking  up  a  fruit  as  it  fell,  gave  it  to  the  king 
to  plant),  and  objecting  religiously  to  lop  it  with  any  weapon. 

In  the  fifth  century  Fa-hien  found  the  Bo-tree  at  Anuradha-pura 


520 


SACRED    SYMBOLS. 


in  vigorous  health,  and  its  guardians  displaying  towards  it  the  same 
vigilant  tenderness  -which  they  exhibit  at  the  present  day. 

The  author  of  the  Maha-vansa,  who  wrote  between  the  years  459 
and  478  of  our  era,  after  relating  the  ceremonial  which  had  been 
observed  nearly  eight  hundred  years  before,  at  the  planting  of  the 
venerated  tree  by  Mahinda,  concludes  by  saying : — '  Thus  this 
monarch  of  the  forest,  endowed  with  miraculous  powers,  has  stood  for 
ages  in  Laiika,  promoting  the  spiritual  welfare  of  its  inhabitants  and 
the  propagation  of  true  religion.' 

When  Buddhism  became  thoroughly  mixed  up  with 
Hinduism  the  Kalpa-tree  or  divine  tree  of  Indra's  para- 
dise was  often  introduced.  It  is  supposed  to  have  its 
terrestrial  counterpart  in  some  sacred  spots  on  earth,  and 
there  to  grant  all  desires,  the  worshipper  having  merely 
to  stretch  out  his  hand  and  take  the  gifts  suspended 
from  its  branches  \  In  one  sculpture  it  is  represented 
pouring  out  coins  on  the  ground.  This  kind  of  wish- 
ing-tree  is  believed  to  present,  among  other  things,  any 
food  that  its  worshippers  may  ask  for,  and  to  present 
it  ready-cooked,  if  cooking  is  needed. 

The  miraculous  tree  which  developed  out  of  the 
Buddha's  tooth-cleaning  twig,  when  thrown  by  him  on 
the  ground,  has  been  already  described  (see  p.  419,  and 
compare  '  Brahmanism  and  Hindiiism,'  p.  2>37)- 

Sacred  Symbols. 

Some  of  the  sacred  objects  already  described  may 
be   regarded   as    symbols.     Of  those  which  are  more 

*  Compare  my  translation  of  '  Sakuntala,'  pp.  90,  91  (fifth  edition). 
The  Christmas-tree  with  its  suspended  gifts  offers  a  curious  and 
interesting  analogy.  The  wonderful  tree  described  by  Messrs.  Hue 
and  Gabet  as  seen  by  them  (vol.  ii.  p.  53,  Hazlett's  translation)  can 
only  be  regarded  as  an  example  of  a  remarkably  clever  hoax. 


SACRED    SYMBOLS.      TRI-EATNA.  52 1 

strictly  symbols  the  Tri-ratna  '  three-jewel '  emblem 
comes  first.  It  is  three-pointed,  and  the  three  points 
are  simply  emblematical  of  the  Buddha,  the  Law,  and 
the  Monastic  Order.  It  is  often  used  as  an  ornament. 
Good  examples  may  be  seen  in  some  of  the  Bharhut 
sculptures  (see  Sir  A.  Cunningham's  work).  The  central 
point  is  often  the  least  elevated. 

The  use  of  this  triple  symbol  is  another  proof  of 
the  connexion  between  Buddhism  and  Hinduism.  Both 
delight  in  triads  and  in  symbolizing  triads  ^  but  tlie 
Buddhist  '  three-jewel '  symbol  should  not  be  confused 
with  the  Hindu  Tri-sula,  which  is  Siva's  trident  used 
as  a  weapon  in  his  warfare  with  the  demons.  The 
Tri-ratna  is  merely  the  analogue  of  the  Tri-,sula,  as  it 
is  also  of  the  triple  horizontal  mark  on  the  forehead 
of  Saivas,  and  of  the  Tri-punclra  or  triple  frontal  mark 
of  the  Tengalai  sect  of  Ramanuja  Vaishnavas.  The 
two  outer  marks  of  the  latter  stand  for  Vishnu's  two 
feet  and  the  middle  for  his  consort  Lakshmi  -. 

Sir  A.  Cunningham  was  the  first  to  show  tliat  the 
three  fetish-like  figures  of  Jagannath  (Krishna)  and  his 
sister  and  brother,  at  Puri  in  Orissa,  were  derived  from 
three  of  the  combined  emblems  of  the  Buddhist  Tri- 
ratna  (compare  p.  166  of  this  volume). 

Next  to  the  Tri-ratna  comes  the  Cal^ra  or  wheel. 
This  svmbolizes  the  Buddhist  doctrine  that  the  origin 


1  Mr.  R.  Sewell  has  written  an  interesting  article  on  '  Early  Bud- 
dhist Symbolism,'  in  which  he  connects  certain  symbols  with  solar 
ideas  derived  from  the  West.  Mr.  Frederic  Pincott  thinks  that  the 
triple  symbol  stands  for  the  ancient  Y  of  the  '  Ye  dharma "  formula. 

2  See  my  'Modern  India,'  p.  193,  published  by  Messrs.  Trubuer 
and  Co.,  and  '  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,'  p.  127. 


522  SACEED    SYMBOLS.       CAKRA.       SVASTIKA. 

of  life  and  of  the  universe  (p.  119)  are  unknowable — 
the  doctrine  of  a  circle  of  causes  and  effects  without 
beginning  and  without  end.  The  wheel  also  typifies 
the  rollino;  of  this  doctrine  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  world  (pp.  410,  423).  It  is  perhaps  one  of  the 
most  important  symbols  of  Buddhist  philosophy.  It  is 
often  represented  as  either  supporting  the  Tri-ratna  or 
supported  by  it,  or  the  latter  may  be  inserted  in  it. 

Observe  that  the  Cakra  or  wheel  is  equally  a  Vaish- 
nava  symbol,  but  in  the  hand  of  Vishnu  or  of  Krishna 
it  is  a  circular  weapon,  hurled  at  a  demon-foe. 

Another  symbol  is  the  Lotus-jioiver.  Its  constant  use 
as  an  emblem,  seems  to  result  from  the  wheel-like 
form  of  the  flower — the  petals  taking  the  place  of 
spokes,  and  thus  typifying  the  doctrine  of  perpetual 
cycles  of  existence — or  from  the  perfection  typified  by 
the  regularity  of  these  petals,  or  from  the  idea  that  its 
expanded  flower,  reposing  on  a  calm  mirror-like  lake, 
is  a  fit  emblem  of  Nirvana. 

The  Wheel,  the  Tri-ratna,  and  the  Lotus  are  so 
important,  as  symbols  of  Buddhism,  that  they  are 
combined  in  the  vignette  on  the  title-page  of  this 
volume. 

Another  symbol  is  the  Svastika  mark,  consisting  of 
two  lines  crossing  each  other,  the  termination  of  each, 
arm  of  tlie  cross  being  usually  bent  round  in  the 
same  direction  \  Much  controversy  has  been  devoted 
to  the  origin  and  meaning  of  this  symbol,  which  simply 
symbolizes  good  luck,  and  equally  belongs  to  Hinduism. 

The   Jaugada  inscription  has   two  Svastikas,  the  arms  iu  each 
of  which  are  buut  iu  opposite  directions. 


THRONE.       UMBRELLA.       SANKHA.  523 

Long  ago  I  propounded  11  theory  that  it  might  repre- 
sent the  four  arms  of  Lakshmi.  I  now  think  it  a  mere 
curtailed  form  of  the  Wheel,  consisting  of  four  spokes 
with  a  portion  of  the  periphery  of  the  circle.  In  my 
opinion,  the  four  spokes  may  represent  the  four  groups 
of  worlds  (i.e.  the  lower  worlds  and  three  groups  of 
heavens,  p.  213)  circling  in  an  eternal  cycle.  Sir 
A.  Cunningham  considers  this  symbol  to  be  a  monogram 
or  interlacing  of  the  letters  of  the  auspicious  words  su 
asti  (svadi)  in  the  Asoka  characters. 

Another  symbol  is  the  Throne  or  seat  of  Buddha — a 
favourite  emblem  in  many  sculptures.  In  Cunningham's 
'  Stupa  of  Bharhut '  the  throne  of  each  Buddha  is  often 
represented  under  his  Bodhi-tree  (but  without  any 
image),  and  the  thrones  of  the  last  four  Buddhas  are 
joined  together  in  a  single  bas-relief.  Sometimes  the 
throne  is  covered  by  an  umbrella  with  garlands,  or 
the  Buddha's  bowl  may  rest  on  it.  Sometimes  two 
foot-prints  are  on  a  foot-stool  under  the  throne. 

Another  venerated  symbol  is  the  StTiim  (see  p.  505). 
It  is  often  an  object  of  adoration  in  itself. 

I  need  scarcely  revert  to  the  Tlmh^ella  symbol  (see 
p.  393).  In  Eastern  countries  it  typifies  supremacy.  If  a 
king  is  present  no  one  else  ought  to  carry  an  umbrella. 

The  Sanl-Jia  or  Concli-shell  is  a  very  auspicious  symbol, 
especially  if  the  convolutions  turn  to  the  right  in  the 
Nandy-avarta  form,  as  on  the  Buddha's  foot  (see  p.  5 1 3). 

The  Tibetan  symbol  of  the  '  FJyiinj  horse'  (Lung-ta) 
— able  to  transport  a  man  round  the  world  in  one 
day— has  been  mentioned  before ;  also  the  Norhu  gem 
(see  pp.  381,  528). 


524  SACRED    ANIMALS. 

Sacred  Animals. 

It  may  be  truly  said  that  all  animals  are  more  or 
less  venerated — though  not  actually  worshipped — under 
the  Buddhist  system.  How  can  it  be  otherwise  when 
every  Buddhist  believes  that  the  Buddha  himself  was 
incarnated  in  various  animals  during  the  period  of  his 
Bodhi-sattvaship  (see  p.  iii)1 

In  the  same  way  the  Hindus  believe  that  the  god 
Vishnu  was  incarnated  in  animals,  such  as  a  fish,  a 
tortoise,  and  a  boar. 

Buddhism  in  this  as  in  other  respects  is  like  Brah- 
manism  and  Hinduism.  The  feeling  of  reverence  for 
animals  rests  on  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis.  It 
is  difficult  for  either  a  Hindu  or  a  Buddhist  to  draw 
a  line  of  demarcation  between  gods,  men,  and  animals, 
when  the  same  living  being  may  exist  as  a  god,  a  man, 
or  an  animal.  It  is  on  this  account  that  in  India 
animals  appear  to  Hve  on  terms  of  the  greatest  friend- 
ship and  mutual  confidence  with  human  beings. 

Everywhere  in  India  animals  dispute  possession  of  the  earth  with 
man.  Birds  build  their  nests  and  lay  their  eggs  in  the  fields, 
untroubled  by  fears  or  misgivings,  before  the  very  eyes  of  every 
passer-by,  and  within  the  reach  of  every  village  school-boy.  Animals 
rove  over  the  soil  as  if  they  were  the  landlords.  Bulls  walk  about 
independently  in  the  streets,  and  jostle  you  on  the  pavements  ;  mon- 
keys domesticate  themselves  jauntily  on  the  roof  of  your  house  ;  parrots 
peer  inquisitively  from  the  eaves  of  your  bedroom  into  the  mysteries 
of  your  toilet ;  crows  make  themselves  at  home  on  your  window-sill, 
and  carry  off'  impudently  any  portable  article  of  jewellery  that  takes 
their  fancy  on  your  dressing-table ;  sparrows  hop  about  impertinently 
and  take  the  bread  off  your  table-cloth  ;  a  solitary  mongoose  emerges 
every  morning  from  a  hole  in  your  verandah,  and  expects  a  share  in 
your  breakfast ;  swarms  of  insects  claim  a  portion  of  your  mid-day 


SACRED    ANIMALS.  525 

meal,  and  levy  a  tax  on  the  choicest  delicacies  at  your  dinner  table  ; 
bats  career  triumphantly  about  your  head  as  you  light  yourself  to 
your  bedroom;  and  at  certain  seasons  snakes  domicile  themselves 
unpleasantly  in  the  folds  of  your  cast-off  garments.  (Quoted  from  my 
*  Brahmauism  and  Hindrdsm.') 

Perhaps  the  most  sacred  animal  in  the  estimation 
of  all  Buddhists  is  the  elephant.  This  will  be  easily 
understood  by  recalling  what  has  been  said  in  a  pre- 
vious Lecture  (see  pp.  23,  24).  In  one  of  the  Bharhut 
sculptures  the  white  elephant  is  seen  descending  to 
enter  the  side  of  Gautama's  mother  Maya  ('  Stupa  of 
Bharhut/  p.  84).  The  elephant,  says  Sir  A.  Cunning- 
ham, is  a  favourite  subject  for  delineation.  It  is  repre- 
sented in  almost  every  possible  position,  as  standing, 
walking,  running,  sitting  down,  eating,  drinking,  throw- 
ing' water  over  its  own  back,  and  lastly,  kneelino:  down 
in  reverence  before  the  holy  Bodhi-tree. 

Probably  the  next  sacred  animal  to  the  elephant 
is  the  deer.  The  Buddha  was  born  eleven  times  as  a 
deer  (p.  iii),  and  he  delivered  his  first  sermon  in  a 
deer-park  (p.  42).  The  '  goose '  (Hansa,  sometimes  called 
'a  duck'  or  'a  swan')  is  also  very  sacred.  With  regard 
to  other  animals.  Sir  A.  Cunningham  remarks : — 

The  animals  represented  in  the  Bharhut  sculptures  are  of  two 
classes,  the  natural  and  the  fabulous.  The  latter,  however,  are 
limited  to  three  varieties,  an  elephant  with  a  fish-tail,  a  crocodile  with 
a  fish-tail,  and  a  winged  horse ;  while  the  former  comprises  no  less 
than  fourteen  quadrupeds,  six  birds,  one  snake,  one  fish,  one  insect, 
one  crocodile,  two  tortoises,  one  lizard,  and  one  frog.  The  quadrupeds 
include  the  lion,  elephant,  horse,  rhinoceros,  wild  boar,  bull,  deer, 
wolf,  monkey,  cat,  dog,  sheep,  hare,  and  squirrel.  The  birds  comprise 
the  cock,  parrot,  peacock,  goose,  wild  duck,  and  quail.  The  snakes 
and  fishes  appear  to  be  of  only  one  kind.  The  solitary  insect  ia 
a  flesh-fly  (p.  41,  etc.). 


526  MISCELLANEOUS    OBJECTS.      BELLS. 

In  Burma  people  feed  sacred  fish,  and  save  tlieir 
lives  in  seasons  when  they  would  perish  through  the 
drying  up  of  rivers  and  ponds  (see  p.  364). 

Dr.  Eitel,  in  his  Lectures  (p.  136),  points  out  that 
even  pigs  are  held  sacred,  though  not  worshipped,  by 
Northern  Buddhists.  We  must  not  forget  that  the 
Buddha  in  two  of  his  births  was  a  pig  (p.  112),  that  he 
died  of  eating  pork,  and  that  in  sculptures  of  the 
Tantrik  goddess  Vajra-varahi — adopted  by  Northern 
Buddhists — a  row  of  seven  pigs  is  carved  underneath 
her  three-headed  figure,  one  head  being  that  of  a  pig. 

Miscellaneous  Objects. 

Among  these  may  be  reckoned  hells  of  various  kinds. 
The  prayer-bells  common  in  Tibet,  which  are  held  in 
the  hand  and  used  during  the  chanting  of  prayers, 
have  been  already  described  (p.  323). 

In  Burma  bells  abound  everywhere.  They  are  of 
all  sizes,  and  often  of  immense  weight,  but  are  not 
used  in  the  same  way  as  in  Tibet,  Nor  are  they  ever 
rung  in  peals  or  with  a  clapper.  Their  use  is  not  to 
call  people  to  religious  services.  It  is  no  part  of  the 
business  of  monks  or  priests  to  summon  the  laity 
to  any  service.  Every  man  worships  on  his  own 
account,  and  for  himself,  and  by  himself,  and  no  so- 
called  priest  reminds  him  of  his  religious  duties,  or 
is  responsible  if  he  neglects  them. 

The  real  use  of  bells  in  Burmese  temples  is  to 
draw  the  attention  of  the  deities  and  spirits  (Naths) 
to  the  act  of  worship,  and  so  secure  the  due  registering 
of  prayer-merit.  When  a  man  has  finished  his  repe- 
titions, he  strikes  the  bell  with  a  piece  of  wood  or 


BELLS    IN   BURMA. 


527 


otlier  sacred  implement  lying  near,  and  the  more  noise 
he  makes  the  better.  Mr.  Scott  informs  us  that  every 
large  pagoda  has  dozens  of  bells  of  all  sizes,  hanging 
outside,  and  one  or  two  inside  the  central  shrine.  They 
are  constantly  dedicated  by  religious  people,  and  thus 
multiplied  ad  injinitum. 

The  form  of  dedication  is  inscribed  on  every  bell, 
and  is  in  the  Pali  language,  though  instances  of  the 
vernacular  occur. 

The  following  is  a  portion  of  a  remarkable  inscrip- 
tion in  the  vernacular  (Shway  Yoe,  i.  243,  abridged) : — 

This  bell  was  moulded  with  great  care  and  much  expense,  and  is 
humbly  offered  by  Moung  San  Yah  and  his  wife,  who  set^k  refuge  in 
the  boundless  mercy  of  the  pitiful  Buddha,  in  the  majesty  of  the 
eternal  law,  and  in  the  examjiles  of  the  venerable  assembly.  They 
humbly  strive  to  gain  merit  for  themselves.  May  the  good  Naths 
look  smilingly  on  them.  May  the  Naths  who  dwell  in  the  air  and  the 
earth  defend  their  two  fat  bullocks — which  plough  the  fields — from 
evil  creatures.  May  the  guardian  Naths  of  the  house  and  of  the  city 
keep  Chit  Oo,  their  son,  and  little  Mah  Mee,  their  darling  daughter, 
from  harm. 

The  weiofht  of  the  bell  is  ffenerallv  added  to  the 
dedication. 

There  is  a  fine  Burmese  bell  in  the  Indian  section 
of  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  It  has  a  long  Pfdi 
inscription,  a  portion  of  the  translation  of  which  T 
here  give  : — 

'  Without  charity  you  cannot  attain  to  Nirvana ' — so  it  is  written 
in  the  Pali  Texts. 

I,  the  giver  of  this  bell,  was  staying  in  the  sweet-smelling  town  of 
Ma-00 — of  which  I  collect  the  taxes  for  the  king — and  with  me  was 
my  wife — my  life's  breath — like  to  the  pollen  of  a  lily,  from  whom 
I  will  not  be  separated  in  all  the  existences  which  are  to  come,  and 
out  of  which  we  hope  soon  to  escape.  "\Ve  adore  Buddha,  that  we  may 
embark  in  the  golden  raft  of  the  Noble  Path,  which  will  lead  us  to 


528   SEVEN  PRECIOUS  SUBSTANCES.  SEVEN  TEEASURES. 

the  filial  plunge  into  Nirvana.  We  two,  brother  and  sister  (that  is, 
husband  and  wife),  have  given  this  bell  as  an  offering.  The  exact 
weight  of  the  bell  is  2500  kyats.  We  took  our  own  weight  in  gold 
and  silver  and  bright  copper  and  other  metal,  and  mixed  them  well 
together,  in  the  year  1209  (1847  A.D.). 

Now  I  will  record  all  the  alms  I  gave  and  what  I  erected  within  the 
sacred  enclosure.  I  gave  a  sacred  flag-staff  (see  p.  380  of  these  Lec- 
tures), the  price  of  which,  with  all  expenses  in  putting  up,  was  500 
rujjees.  At  the  foot  of  it  I  built  four  small  pagodas.  Outside  I  built 
a  monastery  and  a  rest-house.  Such  are  all  the  offerings.  May  I  be 
freed  from  the  Four  states  of  Punishment,  fi'om  the  Three  Great 
Calamities  (war,  famine,  and  plague),  from  the  Eight  Evil  Places,  from 
the  Five  Enemies,  from  unfortunate  times  and  seasons,  and  from  bad 
people.     May  I  escape  all  these  when  I  die. 

All  the  merits  I  have  gained,  may  they  be  shared  with  my  parents, 
teachers,  and  all  my  relations  ;  with  kings,  queens,  nobles,  and  all 
people  in  the  thirty-one  places  of  habitation  throughout  the  universe. 
(See  p.  121  of  these  Lectux'es.) 

Under  the  head  of  miscellaneous  objects,  we  may 
note  the  seven  precious  minerals  or  substances  to  which 
allusion  has  frequently  been  made.  They  are  gold, 
silver,  pearl,  sapphire  or  ruby,  cat's  eye,  diamond,  and 
coral  (Childers) ;  but  they  vary,  and  some  authorities 
substitute  lapis  lazuli  for  pearl.  In  Hindiiism  there 
are  nine  precious  substances  (nava-ratna) . 

We  may  also  enumerate  here  the  seven  treasures 
belonging  to  every  universal  monarch.     These  are  : — 

1 .  a  wheel  which,  being  set  in  motion  by  the  monarch, 
rolls  before  him  to  establish  the  Law  in  his  dominions  ; 

2.  an  elephant;  3.  a  flying  horse  (see  p.  523);  4.  a 
jewel  which  on  the  darkest  night  illuminates  the  earth 
for  seven  miles  round  (p.  381);  5.  a  good  queen  or 
wife  ;  6.  a  good  minister  or  servant,  who  has  the  power 
of  discovering  hidden  treasures ;  7.  a  good  general 
(compare  Alabaster's  '  Wheel  of  the  Law,'  p.  81). 


CONNEXION   OF    BUDDHISM    WITH    JAINISM.         529 


Supplementary  Remarks  on  the  Connexion  of 
Buddhism  with  Jainism  ^ 

Having  during  the  progress  of  the  foregoing  Lec- 
tures, incidentally  mentioned  the  subject  of  Jainism, 
I  ought  not  to  conclude  them  without  explaining  some 
of  the  chief  points  of  difference  between  the  system 
of  the  Jainas  (conveniently  contracted  into  Jains)  and 
that  of  the  Buddhists.  The  Jains  in  India,  according 
to  their  own  reckoning,  number  1,222,000  ;  but  this  is 
incorrect,  for  by  the  last  Census  they  only  number  half 
a  million.  A  great  authority  (Sir  William  Wilson 
Hunter)  confirms  this.  (See  his  '  Gazetteer'  and  '  Indian 
Empire.') 

Most  scholars  in  the  present  day  are  of  opinion  that 
the  Jaina  Teacher  Vardhamana  Maha-vira  (Nataputta) 
and  Gautama  Buddha  were  contemporaries,  and  that 
Jains  were  an  independent  sceptical  sect,  probably  a 
little  antecedent  to  the  Buddhists,  and  were  their  rivals. 
At  any  rate  it  seems  certain  that  the  Niganthas-  or 


^  The  expression  Jainism  corresponds  to  Saivism,  just  as  Jaina  does 
to  Saiva.  Consistency  would  require  Bauddhism  and  Bauddba  for 
Buddhism  and  Buddhist,  but  I  fear  the  latter  expressions  are  too 
firmly  established. 

2  Nigantha  (also  spelt  Niggantha)  is  from  the  Sanskrit  Nir-grantha, 
'  having  no  ties  or  worldly  associations.' 

M  m 


530        CONNEXION   OF    BUDDHISM   WITH   JAINISM. 

Dig-ambara  Jains,  that  is,  a  sect  of  naked  ascetics, 
existed  before  the  Buddha's  time,  and  that  the  Tri- 
pitaka  alludes  to  them. 

Probably  Vardhamana  Maha-vira  (usually  called 
Maha-vira)  was  merely  a  reformer  of  a  system  pre- 
viously founded  by  a  teacher  named  Parsva-natha. 
Not  much  is  known  of  the  latter,  though  he  is  greatly 
honoured  by  the  Jains.  His  images  are  '  serpent- 
canopied  '  like  those  of  Buddha  (p.  480).  His  pupils 
are  called  Pasavaccijja  (for  Parsvapatyiya,  '  belonging 
to  the  descendants  of  Parsva').  They  were  only  bound 
by  four  vows,  whereas  Maha-vira's  teaching  imposed 
five  vows. 

We  have  seen  that  Gautama  Buddha,  in  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  bodily  austeri- 
ties were  useless  as  a  means  of  obtainino^  liberation. 
His  main  idea  seems  to  have  been  that  liberation  from 
the  painful  cycle  of  continued  re-births,  that  is,  from 
Sarnsara,  was  to  be  obtained  by  means  of  knowledge 
(Bodhi),  evolved  out  of  the  inner  consciousness  through 
meditation  (dhyana)  and  intuition  ;  whereas,  in  contra- 
distinction to  this  Buddhist  idea,  the  main  idea  of  the 
Jain  teacher  Maha-vira  seems  to  have  been  that  libera- 
tion was  to  be  obtained  through  subjugation  of  the 
passions  and  through  mortification  of  the  body  (tapas). 
The  term  Jina,  '  conqueror,'  is  used  in  both  systems, 
but  Gautama  Buddha  was  a  Jina  or  conqueror  through 
profound  abstract  meditation,  whereas  Maha-vira  was  a 
Jina  through  severe  bodily  austerity. 

In  fact,  the  Jains,  like  all  other  ascetics,  were 
impressed   with   the   idea    that    it   was   necessary   to 


CONNEXION    OF    BUDDHISM    WITH    JAINISM.         53 1 

maintain  a  defensive  warfare  against  the  assault  of 
evil  passions,  by  keeping  under  the  body  and  subduing 
it.  They  had  also  a  notion  that  a  sense  of  sliame 
implied  sin,  so  that  if  there  were  no  sin  in  the  world 
there  would  be  no  shame.  Hence  they  argued  ratlier 
illogically  that  to  get  rid  of  clothes  was  to  get  rid  of 
sin  ;  and  every  ascetic  who  aimed  at  sinlessness  was 
enjoined  to  walk  about  naked,  with  the  air  or  sky  (Dig) 
as  his  sole  covering  (Dig-ambara). 

In  the  Kalpa-sutra  of  the  Jains  we  read  that  Maha- 
vira  himself  began  his  career  by  wearing  clothes  for  one 
year  and  one  month,  and  after  that  he  walked  about 
naked.  Now  Gautama  Buddha  was  an  opponent  of 
Jain  asceticism,  and  it  seems  to  me  probable  that  one  of 
the  chief  points  on  which  he  laid  stress  was  that  ot" 
decent  clothing.  In  the  Dhamma-pada  (141)  occurs  the 
sentiment  that  '  Nakedness  cannot  purify  a  mortal  who 
has  not  overcome  desires.'  And  again,  in  the  Sekhiyfi 
Dhamma  we  have  'properly  clad'  'must  a  monk 
itinerate.'     (See  p.  473  of  these  Lectures.) 

It  is  recorded  in  the  Vinaya  (Maha-vagga  I.  6.  7-9) 
that  Upaka,  aman  of  the  Ajlvaka  sect  of  naked  ascetics, 
founded  by  Gosala  (said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Maha- 
vira),  met  the  Buddha  just  after  his  enlightenment,  and 
noticing  his  bright  countenance,  asked  him  who  had 
been  his  teacher  ?  He  replied,  '  Having  gained  all 
knowledge,  I  am  myself  the  highest  teacher.'  There- 
upon the  naked  ascetic  shook  his  head  and  went 
another  road. 

Clearly  these  naked  Niganthas,  disciples  of  the  Jain 
Teacher  Maha-vira,  were  no  friends  of  the  Buddha.     It 

M  m  2 


532         CONNEXION    OF   BUDDHISM  WITH    JAINISM. 

seems  to  me  even  possible  that  Gautama's  great  rival, 
Deva-clatta  (see  pp.  405,  406),  mav  have  belonged  to  a 
Dig-ambara  sect  who  opposed  the  Buddha  on  questions 
of  stricter  asceticism,  especially  in  the  matter  of 
clothing ;  for  in  ancient  sculptures  Deva-datta  is  gener- 
ally represented  naked  or  nearly  so,  and  is  usually  in 
close  proximity  to  his  cousin  Gautama  Buddha,  who, 
in  marked  contrast  to  the  other,  is  always  clothed. 
Evidently  the  question  of  dress  was  a  crucial  one,  and 
in  process  of  time  a  party  seems  to  have  arisen,  even 
among  the  Dig-ambara  Jains,  opposed  to  strict  asceticism 
in  this  particular. 

This  party  ultimately  formed  themselves  into  a 
separate  sect,  calling  themselves  Svetambaras,  that  is, 
'  clothed  in  white  garments.'  It  is  well  known  that  in 
early  Buddhism  two  similar  parties  arose,  the  strict  and 
the  lax.  But  the  two  Buddhist  parties  were  ultimately 
reunited.  The  second  council  is  supposed  to  have 
settled  the  controversy. 

Dr.  Jacobi  has  shown  that  the  separation  of  the  two 
Jain  sects  must  have  taken  place  (according  to  the  tra- 
ditions of  both  parties)  some  time  before  the  first  century 
of  our  era. 

It  appears  probable  that  the  strict  Dig-ambaras 
preceded  the  more  lax  Svetambaras,  though  each 
sect  claims  to  be  the  oldest.  The  two  Jain  sects 
have  remained  separate  to  the  present  day,  though 
in  all  essential  points  of  doctrine  and  discipline  they 
agree. 

When  I  was  last  in  India,  in  1884,  I  ascended  the 
two  hills,  Parasnath  (for  Parsva-nath)  and  Abu — both 


CONNEXION    OF   BUDDHISM    WITH   JAINISM.         ^^^ 

of  them  most  sacred  places  in  the  estimation  of  tlie 
Jains,  and  covered  with  their  temples.  My  ascent  of 
the  former  has  been  already  described  (p.  509).  T  also 
visited  Delhi,  Jaypur,  Ajmere,  and  some  other  chief  Jain 
stations.  Jaypur  is  the  stronghold  of  the  Dig-arabara 
Jains,  and  two  intelligent  Dig-ambara  Pandits,  named 
Phate  Lai  and  Syoji  Lai,  visited  me  there.  We 
conversed  for  a  long  time  in  Sanskrit,  and  I  asked  them 
many  questions  about  their  religion,  and  tlie  points  in 
which  they  differed  from  the  Svetambara  sect. 

Three  chief  differences  were  stated  to  be  :  First,  the 
Svetambaras  object  to  entirely  nude  images  of  anv  of 
the  twenty-four  Jinas  or  Tirtham-karas  accepted  by  botii 
sects.  Hence  all  Svetambara  statues  ought  to  have 
some  appearance  of  a  line  round  the  middle  of  the 
body,  representing  a  strip  of  cloth.  Li  one  respect  the 
images  of  the  Jinas  differ  from  those  of  the  Buddhas. 
They  have  a  jewel-like  mark  on  the  breast.  This  is 
especially  conspicuous  in  Parsva-nath.  They  are  also 
of  different  colours,  and  have  symbols  (generally  animals, 
such  as  a  deer,  tortoise,  pig)  connected  with  them. 

Secondly,  the  Svetambaras  admit  women  into  their 
order  of  ascetics  just  as  Buddhists  have  their  Bhik- 
khunis,  or  nuns  ;  whereas  the  Dig-ambaras,  for  obvious 
reasons,  do  not  admit  women. 

Thirdly,  the  Svetambaras  have  distinct  sacred  books 
of  their  own,  which  they  call  Angas,  'limbs  of  the  Law,' 
eleven  in  number,  besides  others,  making  45  Agamas, 
1 1  Aiigas,  1 2  Upangas,  10  Painnas  (Prakirnaka),  4  Mfdas, 
6  Chedas,  i  Anuyoga-dvara,  and  i  Nandi.  Dr.  Blihler 
places  the  composition  of  the  Angas  in  the  third  century 


534        CONNEXION   OF   BUDDHISM   WITH   JAINISM. 

i;.c.  Dr.  Jacobi  places  them  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  or 
beginning  of  the  third  century.  They  are  written  in 
Jain  Prakrit  (sometimes  called  Ardha-Magadhi,  a  later 
form  than  Pali),  with  Sanskrit  commentaries.  The  Dig- 
ambaras  substitute,  for  the  Aiigas,  later  works,  also 
written  in  more  modern  Prakrit  (probably  in  the  fifth 
or  sixth  century  after  Christ),  and  maintain  that  the 
Svetambara  Canon  is  spurious.  Both  sects  have  valuable 
Sanskrit  works  in  their  sacred  literature. 

I  now  add  a  few  characteristics  of  both  sects  of  Jains 
as  distinguishing:  them  from  Buddhists. 

I  need  scarcely  notice  the  fact  that  the  Jains  of  the 
present  day  keep  up  Caste.  The  two  Jain  Pandits  who 
came  to  me  at  Jaypur  were  Brahmans,  and  wore  the 
Brahraanical  thread.  I  believe  this  to  be  a  mere  modern 
innovation,  which  does  not  properly  belong  to  the  Jain 
system. 

More  important  are  the  following  points  : — The  Jain 
saints,  or  prophets,  are  called  by  a  peculiar  name 
Tirtham-kara,  'ford-makers,'  i.e.  making  a  ford  across 
the  troubled  river  of  constant  births  or  transmifrrations 
(Samsara)  to  the  Elysium  of  Nirvana ;  whereas  the 
name  Tirtham-kara  with  the  Buddhists  means  a 
'  heretical  teacher.'  Then  there  are  twenty-four  Jain 
Tirtham-karas,  whereas  there  are  twenty-five  Buddhas. 
Of  the  twenty-four  Jain  saints,  the  twenty-third  and 
twenty-fourth — Parsva-nath  (pp.  509,  529)  and  Maha- 
vlra — are  the  only  historical  personages.  The  others, 
beginning  with  Rishabha,  are  mythical. 

Next,  the  Jains  have  no  Stupas  or  Dagabas  (p.  504) 
for  preserving  the  relics  of  their  saints. 


CONNEXION    OF   BUDDHISM    WITH    JAINISM.         535 

Still  more  important  ia  the  point  that  the  Jains 
believe  in  separate  individual  souls  (Jiva),  wliereas  the 
Buddhists  deny  the  existence  of  souls.  Souls,  according 
to  the  Jains,  may  exist  in  stocks,  stones,  lumps  of  earth, 
drops  of  water,  particles  of  fire.  In  Buddhism  there 
is,  as  we  have  seen,  no  true  metempsychosis,  but  rather 
a  connected  series  of  metamorphoses,  and  this  stops 
at  animals  ;  whereas  the  metempsychosis  of  Jainism 
extends  to  inorganic  matter. 

With  regard  to  the  moral  code  two  or  three  points 
maybe  noticed.  The  Jaina  'three  jewels  '  are  Eight- 
belief,  Eight-knowledge,  and  Eight-conduct,  whereas 
the  Buddhist  Tri-ratna  consists  in  the  well-known 
Triad — the  Buddha,  the  Law,  and  the  Monkhood. 

Then  as  to  the  five  chief  Moral  Prohibitions — the 
fifth  with  Jains  is  :  '  have  no  worldly  attachments  ; ' 
whereas  with  Buddhists  it  is  :  'drink  no  strong:  drink.' 
I  believe  the  Buddhists  to  have  been  the  first  to 
introduce  total  abstinence  from  stronor  drinks  into 
India.  The  Jains,  too,  lay  even  more  stress  than  the 
Buddhists  on  the  first  prohibition  : — Kill  no  living  crea- 
ture. They  strain  water  before  drinking,  sweep  the 
ground  with  a  silken  brush  before  sitting  down  on  it, 
never  eat  in  the  dark,  often  wear  muslin  before  their 
mouths  to  catch  minute  insects,  and  even  object  to 
eating  fruits  containing  seed. 

Another  interesting  difference  is  that  Jainism  makes 
Dharma  and  Adharma,  good  and  evil,  or  rather  merit 
and  demerit,  two  out  of  its  six  real  substances — its 
fundamental  and  eternal  principles  (Astikaya) — the 
other  four  being  matter  (pudgala),  soul  (jiva),  space  and 


536        CONNEXION    OF    BUDDHISM    WITH    JAINISM. 

time.  The  Jains  reject  the  Buddhist  theory  of  the  five 
Skandhas  (see  p.  109). 

Lastly,  the  prayer-formula  of  the  Jains  differs  from 
the  well-known  'three-refuge'  formula  of  the  Buddhists 
('I  go  for  refuge  to  the  Buddha,  the  Law,  and  the 
order  of  Monks ')  thus  :  '  Keverence  to  the  Arhats,  to  the 
Siddlias,  to  the  Acaryas,  to  the  Upadhyayas,  to  all  the 
Sadhus'  (Namo  Arihantanam  namo  Siddhanam  namo 
Ayariyanam  namo  Uvajjhayanam  namo  loe  sabba- 
sahunam). 

Time  will  not  permit  me  to  notice  minor  differences, 
such  as  the  Jain  rule  that  the  hair  should  be  painfully 
torn  off,  instead  of  cut  off,  etc. 

Certainly  Jainism,  when  viewed  from  the  stand-point 
of  Christianity,  is  even  a  colder  system  than  Buddhism, 
and  has  even  less  claim  to  be  called  a  religion.  Yet  no 
system  can  show  a  greater  number  of  temples.  Every 
Jain  who  is  noted  for  his  piety  builds  a  small  temple. 
He  never  repairs  the  temples  of  others.  At  Palitana  in 
Kathiawar,  there  is  a  whole  city  of  Jain  temples.  Nor 
is  it  at  all  necessary  that  every  temple  built  to  hold  a 
Jain  saint  should  j^ossess  either  priests  or  w^orshippers. 
What  is  aimed  at  is  the  acquisition  of  merit  by  the 
performance  of  pious  acts. 

I  must  conclude  by  expressing  my  opinion  that 
Indian  Jainism  is  gradually  drifting  back  into  the  cur- 
rent of  Bnlhmanism,  which  everywhere  surrounds  it 
and  attracts  it.  Jainism,  like  Buddhism,  came  out  from 
Briihmanism,  and  into  Brahmanism  it  is  destined  to 
return. 


LECTUEE  XVIII. 

Buddhism  contrasted  ivitJi  Christianity. 

In  the  previous  Lectures  I  have  incidentally  con- 
trasted the  princij^al  doctrines  of  Buddhism  with  those 
of  Christianity. 

It  will  be  my  aim  in  this  concluding  Lecture  to 
draw  attention  more  directly  and  more  in  detail  to 
the  main  points  of  divergence  between  two  systems, 
which  in  their  moral  teaching  have  so  many  points  of 
contact,  that  a  superficial  study  of  either  is  apt  to  li'ad 
to  very  confused  ideas  in  regard  to  their  comparative 
excellence  and  their  resemblance  to  each  other. 

And  first  of  all  I  must  remind  those  who  heard  my 
earlier  Lectures  of  the  grand  fundamental  distinction 
which  they  were  intended  to  establish — namely,  tliat 
Christianity  is  a  religion,  whereas  Buddhism,  at  least 
in  its  earliest  and  truest  form,  is  no  religion  at  all, 
but  a  mere  system  of  morality  and  philosophy  founded 
on  a  pessimistic  theory  of  life. 

Here,  however,  it  may  be  objected  that,  before  we 
exclude  Buddhism  from  all  title  to  be  called  a  religion, 
we  ought  to  define  what  we  mean  by  the  term  '  re- 
lioion.' 

o 

Of  course,  it  will  be  generally  acknowledged  that 
mere  morality  need  not  imply  religion,  though — takuig 


538      BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED    WITH   CHRISTIANITY. 

the  converse — it  is  most  undeniably  true  that  religion 
must  of  necessity  imply  morality. 

Unquestionably  there  have  been  great  philosophers 
in  ancient  times  who  have  lived  strictly  moral  lives 
without  acknowledging  any  religious  creed  at  all. 
Many  excellent  men,  too,  exist  among  us  in  the  pre- 
sent day,  who  resent  being  called  irreligious,  and  yet 
hold  no  definite  religious  doctrines,  and  decline  to  ac- 
cept any  system  which  commits  them  to  absolute  belief 
in  anything  except  an  eternal  Energy  or  Force. 

Clearly  the  definition  of  the  w^ord  '  religion'  is  beset 
with  difficulties,  and  its  etymology  is  too  uncertain 
to  help  us  in  explaining  it  ^  We  shall,  however,  be 
justified  if  we  affirm  that  every  system  claiming  to 
be  a  religion  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word  must 
postulate  the  eternal  existence  of  one  living  and  true 
God  of  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  love,  the  Creator, 
Designer,  and  Preserver  of  all  things  visible  and  in- 
visible. 

It  must  also  take  for  granted  the  immortality  of 
man's  soul  or  spirit,  and  the  reality  of  a  future  state 
and  of  an  unseen  world.  It  must  also  postulate 
in  man  an  innate  sense  of  dependence  on  a  personal 
God — a  sense  of  reverence  and  love  for  Him,  springing 
from  a  belief  in  His  justice,  holiness,  wisdom,  power, 
and  love,  and  intensified  by  a  deep  consciousness  of 
weakness,  and  a  yearning  to  be  delivered  from  the 
presence,  tyranny,  and  penalty  of  sin. 

Cicero  (De  natura  deorum)  derives  religion  from  relego,  and  ex- 
plains it  as  a  diligent  practice  of  prayer  and  worship.  Others  have 
derived  it  from  religo,  and  hold  that  it  means  '  binding  to  God.' 


BUDDHISM    CONTRASTED   WITH   CHRISTIANITY.       539 

Then,  starting  from  these  assumptions-,  it  must 
satisfy  four  requisites. 

First,  it  must  reveal  the  Creator  in  His  nature  and 
attributes  to  His  creature,  man. 

Secondly,  it  must  reveal  man  to  himself.  It  must 
impart  to  him  a  knowledge  of  his  own  nature  and 
history — what  he  is  ;  why  he  was  created  ;  whither  he 
is  tending ;  and  whether  he  is  at  present  in  a  state  of 
decadence  downwards  from  a  higher  condition,  or  of 
development  upwards  from  a  lower. 

Thirdly,  it  must  reveal  some  method  by  which  the 
finite  creature  may  communicate  with  the  infinite 
Creator — some  plan  by  which  he  may  gain  access  to 
Him  and  become  united  with  Him,  and  be  saved  by 
Him  from  the  consequences  of  his  own  sinful  acts. 

Fourthly,  such  a  system  must  prove  its  title  to  be 
called  a  religion  by  its  regenerating  effect  on  man's 
nature;  by  its  influence  on  his  thoughts,  desires,  passions, 
and  feelings ;  by  its  power  of  subduing  all  his  evil 
tendencies ;  by  its  ability  to  transform  his  character 
and  assimilate  him  to  the  God  it  reveals. 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  tried  by  such  a  criterion  as 
this,  early  Buddhism  could  not  claim  to  be  a  religion. 
It  failed  to  satisfy  these  conditions.  It  refused  to 
admit  the  existence  of  a  personal  Creator,  or  of  man's 
dependence  on  a  higher  Power.  It  denied  any  eternal 
soul  or  Ego  in  man.  It  acknowledged  no  external, 
supernatural  revelation.  It  had  no  priesthood— no  real 
clergy  ;  no  real  prayer  ;  no  real  worship.  It  had  no 
true  idea  of  sin,  or  of  the  need  of  pardon  (p.  124),  and 
it  condemned  man  to  suffer  the  consequences  of  his  own 


540      BUDDHISM    CONTRASTED    WITH    CHEISTIANITY. 

sinful  acts  without  hope  of  help  from  any  Saviour  or 
Redeemer,  and  indeed  from  any  being  but  himself 

The  late  Bishop  of  Calcutta  once  said  to  me,  that 
being  in  an  outlying  part  of  his  diocese,  where 
Buddhism  prevailed,  he  asked  an  apparently  pious 
Buddhist,  whom  he  happened  to  observe  praying  in  a 
temple,  what  he  had  just  been  praying  for  1  He  replied, 
'  I  have  been  praying  for  nothing.'  '  But,'  urged  the 
Bishop,  '  to  whom  have  you  been  praying  V  The  man 
answered,  '  I  have  been  praying  to  nobody.'  '  What ! ' 
said  the  astonished  Bishop,  'praying  for  nothing  to 
nobody  1 '  And  no  doubt  this  anecdote  gives  an  accu- 
rate idea  of  the  so-called  prayer  of  a  true  Buddhist. 
This  man  had  not  really  been  praying  for  anything. 
He  had  been  merely  making  use  of  some  form  of  words 
to  which  an  efScacy,  like  that  of  sowing  fruitful  seed 
in  a  field,  was  supposed  to  belong.  He  had  not  been 
praying  in  any  Christian  sense. 

Here,  however,  an  objector  might  remind  me  that 
according  to  my  own  showing,  various  developments 
of  Buddhism  modified  and  even  contradicted  the 
original  creed,  and  that  what  has  been  here  said  about 
prayer,  is  only  strictly  applicable  to  early  Buddhism 
as  originally  taught  in  the  most  ancient  texts. 

I  grant  this — I  grant  that  expressions  of  reverence 
for  the  Buddha,  the  Law,  and  the  Monkhood,  developed 
into  expressions  of  wants  and  needs,  and  that  these 
expressions,  gradually  led  on  to  the  offering  of  actual 
prayers  to  deified  Buddhas  and  Bodhi-sattvas. 

I  admit  that  we  ought  to  judge  of  Buddhism  as 
a  whole.     We  ought  to  give  full  consideration  to  its 


BUDDHISM   CONTEASTED    WITH    CHRISTIANITY.       54 1 

later  developments,  and  the  gradual  sliding  of  its 
atheism  and  agnosticism  into  theism  and  polytheism. 
We  are  bound  to  acknowledge  that  Buddhism,  as  it 
extended  to  other  countries,  did  acquire  the  character 
of  a  theistic  religious  system,  which,  though  false,  had 
in  it  some  points  of  contact  with  Christianity. 

Nevertheless,  admitting  all  this,  and  taking  into 
account  all  that  can  be  said  in  favour  of  Buddliism 
as  a  religious  system,  it  will  be  easy  to  show  how 
impossible  it  is  to  bridge  over  the  yawning  chasm 
which  separates  it  from  the  true  religion. 

It  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  strange  phenomena  of  the 
present  day,  that  even  educated  people  who  call  them- 
selves Christians,  are  apt  to  fall  into  raptures  over  the 
precepts  of  Buddhism  ^,  attracted  by  the  bright  gems 
which  its  admirers  delight  in  culling  out  of  its  moral 
code,  and  in  displaying  ostentatiously,  while  keeping 
out  of  sight  all  its  dark  spots,  all  its  trivialities  and 
senseless  repetitions  ^ ;   not  to  speak  of  all  those  evi- 

^  Here  is  an  extract  from  a  book  called  '  The  Mystery  of  the  Ages,' 
published  in  1887  :—' Buddhism  is  the  Christianity  of  the  East,  and, 
as  such,  even  in  better  conservation  than  is  Christianity,  the  Buddhism 
of  the  West.' 

2  As  instances  of  the  trivialities  I  give  the  following  from  the 
Culla-vagga  (Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  vol.  xx.  v,  31,  p.  146  ;  v,  9. 

5,  P-  87)  :- 

'  Now  at  that  time  the  Bhikkhus  hung  up  their  bowls  on  pins  in  the 
walls,  or  on  hooks.  The  pins  or  hooks  falling  down, -the  bowls  were 
broken.  They  told  this  matter  to  the  Blessed  One.  "  You  are  not, 
0  Bhikkhus,  to  hang  your  bowls  up.  Whosoever  does  so,  sliall  be 
guilty  of  a  dukkata "  (offence).  Now  at  that  time  the  Bhikkhus 
put  their  bowls  down  on  a  bed,  or  a  chair;  and  sitting  down 
thoughtlessly  they  upset  them,  and  the  bowls  were  broken.     They 


542       BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED   WITH    CHRISTIANITY. 

dences  of  deep  corruption  beneath  a  wbited  surface,  all 

told  this  matter  to  the  Blessed  One.  "  You  are  not,  0  Bhikkhus,  to 
put  ycur  howls  on  a  bed,  or  on  a  chair.  Whosoever  does  go,  shall  he 
guilty  of  a  dukkata  "  (offence).  Now  at  that  time  the  Bhikkhus  kept 
their  bowls  on  their  lap^  ;  and  rising  up  thoughtlessly  they  upset  them, 
and  the  bowls  were  broken.  They  told  this  matter  to  the  Blessed 
One.  "  You  are  not,  O  Bhikkhus,  to  keep  your  bowls  on  your  laps. 
Whosoever  does  so,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  dukkata  "  (offence).  Now  at 
that  time  the  Bhikkhus  i:)ut  their  bowls  down  on  a  sunshade  ;  and  the 
sunshade  being  lifted  up  by  a  whirlwind,  the  bowls  rolled  over  and 
were  broken.  They  told  this  matter  to  the  Blessed  One.  "  You  ai'e 
not,  O  Bhikkhus,  to  put  your  bowls  down  on  a  sunshade.  Whosoever 
does  so,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  dukkata."  Now  at  that  time  the 
Bhikkhus,  when  they  were  holding  the  bowls  in  their  hands,  opened 
the  door.  The  door  springing  back,  the  bowls  were  broken.  They 
told  this  matter  to  the  Blessed  One.  "  You  are  not,  O  Bhikkhus,  to 
open  the  door  with  your  bowls  in  your  hands.  Whosoever  does  so, 
shall  be  guilty  of  a  dukkata."  Now  at  that  time  the  Bhikkhus  did 
not  use  tooth-sticks,  and  their  mouths  got  a  bad  odour.  They  told  this 
matter  to  the  Blessed  One.  "  There  are  these  five  disadvantages,  O 
Bhikkhus,  in  not  using  tooth-sticks — it  is  bad  for  the  eyes — the 
mouth  becomes  bad-smelling — the  passages  by  which  the  flavours  of 
the  food  pass  are  not  pure — bile  and  phlegm  get  into  the  food — and 
the  food  does  not  taste  well  to  him  who  does  not  use  them.  These 
are  the  five  disadvantages,  0  Bhikkhus,  in  not  using  tooth-sticks." 
"  There  are  five  advantages,  O  Bhikkhus  "  (etc.,  the  converse  of  the 
last).  "  I  allow  you,  0  Bhikkhus,  tooth-sticks."  Now  at  that  time 
the  Chabbaggiya  Bhikkhus  used  long  tooth-sticks ;  and  even  struck 
the  Samaneras  with  them.  They  told  this  matter  to  the  Blessed  One. 
"  You  are  not,  O  Bhikkhus,  to  use  too  long  tooth-sticks.  AVhosoever 
does  so,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  dukkata.  I  allow  you,  0  Bhikkhus,  tooth- 
sticks  up  to  eight  finger-breadths  in  length.  And  Samaneras  are  not 
to  be  struck  with  them.  Whosoever  does  so,  shall  be  guilty  of  a 
dukkata."  Now  at  that  time  a  certain  Bhikkhu,  when  using  too  short 
a  tooth-stick  got  it  stuck  in  his  throat.  They  told  this  matter  to  the 
Blessed  One.  "  You  are  not,  0  Bhikkhus,  to  use  too  short  a  tooth- 
stick.  Whosoever  does  so,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  dukkata.  I  allow  you, 
O  Bhikkhus,  tooth-sticks  four  finger-breadths  louf'  at  the  least."  ' 


BUDDHISM    CONTRASTED    WITH    CHRISTIANITY.       543 

those  significant  precepts  and  prohibitions  in  its  books 
of  discipline,  which  indeed  no  Christian  could  soil  his 
lips  by  uttering  ^ 

It  has  even  been  asserted  that  much  of  the  teaching 
in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and  in  otlier  parts  of 
the  Gospel  narratives,  is  based  on  previously  current 
moral  teaching,  which  Buddhism  was  the  first  to  intro- 
duce to  the  world,  500  years  before  Christ  -.  But  this 
is  not  all.  The  admirers  of  Buddhism  maintain  that 
the  Buddha  was  not  a  mere  teacher  of  the  truths  of 
morality,  but  of  many  other  sublime  truths.  He  has 
been  justly  called,  say  they,  'the  Light  of  Asia,' 
though  they  condescendingly  admit  that  Christianity 
as  a  later  development  is  more  adapted  to  become 
the  religion  of  the  world. 

Let  us  then  inquire,  for  a  moment,  what  claim  Gau- 
tama Buddha  has  to  this  title — ■'  the  Lisfht  of  Asia  ?  ' 

Now,  in  the  first  place  those  who  give  him  this  name 
forget  that  his  doctrines  only  spread  over  Eastern  Asia, 
and  that  either  Confucius,  or  Zoroaster,  or  Muhammad 
might  equally  be  called  '  the  Light  of  Asia.' 

^  Although  this  Lecture  was  written  aud  in  type  before  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Bishop  of  Colombo's  article  in  the  July  (1888)  number  of 
the  '  Nineteenth  Century/  I  need  not  say  that  I  wish  here,  as  the 
Bishop  has  done,  to  draw  attention  to  the  collection  of  '  moral  horrors  ' 
existing  in  some  parts  of  the  Parajika  books — the  disgusting  detail  of 
every  conceivable  form  of  revolting  vice,  supposed  to  be  i:)erpetrated 
or  perpetrable  by  monks. 

"^  Dr.  Kellogg,  in  his  excellent  work,  'the  Light  of  Asia  and  tlic 
Light  of  the  World,'  well  criticizes  Professor  Seydol's  Buddhist-Chris- 
tian Harmony,  as  well  as  the  Professor's  views  on  this  point  expressed  in 
his  work  entitled  '  Das  Evangelium  von  Jesu  in  Seinen  Verhaltuissen 
zu  Buddha-Sage  und  Buddha-Lehre.'     Leijizig,  1880. 


544      BUDDHTSM    CONTRASTED    WITH    CHRISTIANITY. 

But  was  the  Buddha,  in  any  true  sense,  a  Light  to 
any  part  of  the  world  1 

It  is  certainly  true  that  the  main  idea  implied  by 
Buddhism  is  intellectual  enlightenment.  Buddhism, 
before  all  things,  means  enlightenment  of  mind,  re- 
sulting from  intense  self-concentration  and  introspec- 
tion, from  intense  abstract  meditation,  combined  with 
the  exercise  of  a  man's  own  reasoning  faculties  and 
intuitions. 

Of  what  nature,  then,  was  the  so-called  Light  of 
Knowledge  that  radiated  from  the  Buddha  ?  Was  it 
the  knowledge  of  his  own  utter  weakness,  of  his  ori- 
ginal depravity  of  heart,  or  of  tlie  origin  of  sin  '?  No  ; 
the  Buddha's  light  was  in  these  respects  j)rofound 
darkness.  He  confessed  himself,  in  regard  to  such 
momentous  questions,  a  downright  Agnostic.  The 
primary  origin  of  evil — the  first  evil  act — was  to  him 
an  inexplicable  mystery. 

Was  it,  then,  a  knowledge  of  the  goodness,  justice, 
hohness,  and  omnipotence  of  a  personal  Creator  1  Was 
it  a  knowledge  of  the  Fatherhood  of  God  '?  No  ;  the 
Buddha's  light  was  in  these  respects  also  mere  and 
sheer  darkness.  In  these  respects,  too,  he  acknow- 
ledged liimself  a  thorough  Agnostic.  He  admitted 
that  he  knew  of  no  beino;  hiofher  than  himself. 

What,  then,  was  the  light  that  broke  upon  the 
Buddha  1  What  was  this  enlightenment  which  has 
been  so  much  written  about  and  extolled  ?  All  that 
he  claimed  to  have  discovered  was  the  oriofin  of  suffer- 
ing  and  the  remedy  of  suffering.  All  the  light  of 
knowledge  to  which  he  attained  came  to  this : — that 


BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED    WITH    CHRISTIANITY.      54:^ 

suffering  arises  from  indulging  desires,  especially  the 
desire  for  continuity  of  life ;  that  suffering  is  insepar- 
able from  life  ;  that  all  life  is  suffering ;  and  that 
suffering  is  to  be  got  rid  of  by  the  suppression  of 
desires,  and  by  the  extinction  of  personal  existence. 

Here,  then,  is  the  first  great  contrast.  When  the 
Buddha  said  to  his  converts,  '  Come  (ehi),  be  my  dis- 
ciple/ he  bade  them  expect  to  get  rid  of  suffering,  he 
told  them  to  stamp  out  suffering  by  stamping  out 
desires  (see  pp.  43,  44).  When  the  Christ  said  to  His 
disciples,  '  Come,  follow  Me,'  He  bade  them  expect 
suffering.  He  told  them  to  glory  in  their  sufferings — 
nay,  to  expect  the  perfection  of  their  characters  through 
suffering. 

It  is  certainly  noteworthy  that  both  Christianity  and 
Buddhism  agree  in  asserting  that  all  creation  groaneth 
and  travaileth  in  pain,  in  suffering,  in  tribulation. 
But  mark  the  vast,  the  vital  distinction  in  the  teach- 
ing of  each.  The  one  taught  men  to  be  patient  under 
affliction,  and  to  aim  at  the  glorification  of  the  suffering 
body,  the  other  taught  men  to  be  intolerant  of  afiliction, 
and  to  aim  at  the  utter  annihilation  of  the  sufiering 
body. 

What  says  our  Bible  ?  We  Christians,  it  says,  are 
members  of  Christ's  Body — of  His  flesh  and  of  Ilis 
bones — of  that  Divine  Body  which  was  once  a  sufiering 
Body,  a  cross-bearing  Body,  and  is  now  a  glorified 
Body,  an  ever-living,  life-giving  Bod}'.  Hence  it  teaches 
us  to  honour  and  revere  the  human  body  ;  nay,  almost 
to  deify  the  human  body. 

A    Buddhist,  on  the  other  hand,  treats  every  kind 


N  n 


546      BUDDHISM    CONTRASTED    WITH   CHEISTIANITY. 

of  body  with  contempt,  and  repudiates  as  a  simple 
impossibility,  all  idea  of  being  a  member  of  the  Bud- 
dha's body.  How  could  a  Buddhist  be  a  member 
of  a  body  which  was  burnt  to  ashes — which  was 
calcined, — which  became  extinct  at  the  moment  when 
the  Buddha's  whole  personality  became  extinguished 
also '? 

But,  say  the  admirers  of  Buddhism,  at  least  you 
will  admit  that  the  Buddha  told  men  to  avoid  sin, 
and  to  aim  at  purity  and  holiness  of  life  ?  Nothing 
of  the  kind.  The  Buddha  had  no  idea  of  sin  as  an 
offence  against  God,  no  idea  of  true  holiness  (see  p.  124). 
What  he  said  was — Get  rid  of  the  demerit  of  evil 
actions  and  accumulate  a  stock  of  merit  by  good  ac- 
tions. 

And  let  me  remark  here  that  this  determination  to 
store  up  merit — like  capital  at  a  bank — is  one  of  those 
inveterate  propensities  of  human  nature,  one  of  those  irre- 
pressible and  deep-seated  tendencies  in  humanity  which 
nothing  but  the  divine  force  imparted  by  Christianity 
can  ever  eradicate.  It  is  for  ever  cropping  up  in  the 
heart  of  man,  as  much  in  the  West  as  in  the  East,  as 
much  in  the  North  as  in  the  South  ;  for  ever  re-assert- 
ing itself  like  a  pestilent  weed,  or  like  tares  amidst 
the  wheat,  for  ever  blighting  the  fruit  of  those  good 
instincts  which  underlie  man's  nature  everywhere. 

Only  the  other  day  I  met  an  intelligent  Sikh  from 
the  Panjab,  and  asked  him  about  his  religion.  He 
replied,  '  I  am  no  idolater ;  T  believe  in  One  God,  and 
I  repeat  my  prayers,  called  "  Jap-jee,"  every  morning 
and  evening.     These  prayers  occuj^y  six  pages  of  print, 


BUDDHISM   CONTKASTED   WITH    CHRISTIANITY.      547 

but  1  can  get  through  them  in  little  more  than  ten 
minutes.'  He  seemed  to  pride  himself  on  this  rapid 
recitation  as  a  work  of  increased  merit. 

I  said,  '  What  else  does  your  religion  require  of 
you  1 '  He  replied,  '  I  have  made  one  pilgrimage  to 
a  holy  well  near  Amritsar.  Eighty-five  steps  lead 
down  to  it.  I  descended  and  bathed  in  the  sacred 
pool.  Then  I  ascended  one  step  and  repeated  my 
Jap-jee  with  great  rapidity.  Then  I  descended  again 
to  the  pool  and  bathed  again,  and  ascended  to  the 
second  step  and  repeated  my  prayers  a  second  time. 
Then  I  descended  a  third  time,  and  ascended  to  the 
third  step  and  repeated  my  Jap-jee  a  third  time,  and 
so  on  for  the  whole  eighty-five  steps,  eighty -five 
bathings  and  eighty-five  repetitions  of  the  same 
prayers.  It  took  me  exactly  fourteen  hours,  from 
5  p.m.  one  evening  to  7  a.m.  next  morning,  and  I 
fasted  all  the  time.' 

I  asked,  '  What  good  did  you  expect  to  get  by  going 
through  this  task  ? '  He  replied,  '  I  hope  I  have  laid 
up  an  abundant  store  of  merit,  which  will  last  me  for 
a  long  time.' 

This,  let  me  tell  you,  is  a  genuine  Hindu  notion. 

It  is  of  the  very  essence  of  Brahmanism,  of  Hinduism, 

of  Zoroastrianism,  of  Confucianism,  of  Muliammadan- 

ism.     It  is  even  more   of  the  essence   of  Buddhism. 

For,  of  all   systems,  Buddhism   is   the  one  which  lays 

most    stress   on   the    accumulation   of  merit   by  good 

actions,  as  the  sole  counterpoise  to  the  mighty  force 

generated   by   the   accumulation    of  demerit   through 

evil   actions   in   present   and   previous   forms   of  life. 

N  n  2 


548      BUDDHISM    CONTRASTED    WITH    CHRISTIANITY. 

Nor  did  the  Buddha  ever  claim  to  be  a  deliverer  from 

guilt,  a  purger  from  the  taint  of  past  pollution.     He 

never  pretended  to  set  any  one  free  from  the  penalty, 

power,  and  presence  of  sin — from  the  bondage  of  sinful 

acts  and  besetting  vices.    He  never  professed  to  furnish 

any  cure  for  the  leprosy  of  man's  corrupt  nature — any 

medicine  for  a  dying  sinner  ^.     On  the  contrary,  by  his 

doctrine  of  Karma  he  bound  a  man  hand  and  foot  to 

the  inevitable   consequences  of  his   own   evil    actions 

with  chains  of  adamant.     He  said,  in  effect,  to  every 

one  of  his  disciples,  '  You  are  in  slavery  to  a  tyrant  of 

your  own   setting   up ;    your   own  deeds,  w^ords,  and 

thoughts  in  your  present  and  former  states  of  being, 

are  your  own  avengers  through  a  countless  series  of 

existences. 

"  Your  acts  your  angels  are  for  good  or  ill, 
Your  fatal  shadows  that  walk  by  you  still." 

'  K  you  have  been  a  murderer,  a  thief,  a  liar,  impure, 
a  drunkard,  you  must  pay  the  penalty  in  your  next 
birth — perhaps  as  a  sufferer  in  one  of  the  hells  ^,  per- 

^  It  is  true  that  in  the  Lalita-vistara  Buddha  is  described  in  terms 
which  appear  to  assimilate  his  character  to  the  Christian  conception 
of  a  Saviour ;  but  how  could  any  man,  however  good  and  great,  have 
any  claim  to  be  called  either  a  Saviour  or  Redeemei-,  who  only 
i-evealed  to  his  fellow-men  such  a  method  of  getting  rid  of  pain 
and  suffering,  thi'ough  their  own  works  and  merits,  as  must  lead 
them  in  the  end  to  extinction  of  all  personal  existence  1  The  very 
essence  of  Christ's  character  as  a  Saviour  is  His  divine  power  of 
transferring  His  own  perfect  merits  to  imperfect  men,  and  leading 
them  from  death  to  eternal  life,  not  to  eternal  extinction  of  life. 

*  In  regard  to  the  Buddhist  doctrine  of  terrific  purgatorial  torments 
in  some  of  the  numerous  Hells  see  p.  120  of  this  volume. 


BUDDHISM   CONTKASTED    WITH    CHRISTIANITY.       549 

haps  in  the  body  of  a  wild  beast,  perhaps  in  that  of 
some  unclean  animal  or  loathsome  vermin,  perhaps  as 
a  demon  or  evil  spirit.  Yes,  your  doom  is  sealed. 
Not  in  the  heavens,  0  man,  not  in  the  midst  of  the 
sea,  not  if  thou  hidest  thyself  in  the  clefts  of  the 
mountains,  wilt  thou  find  a  place  where  thou  canst 
escape  the  force  of  thine  own  evil  actions  ^  Thy 
only  hope  of  salvation  is  in  thyself  Neither  god  nor 
man  can  save  thee,  and  I  am  wholly  powerless  to  set 
thee  free.' 

And  now,  contrast  the  few  brief  words  of  Christ  in 
his  first  recorded  sermon  2.  '  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  is 
upon  Me,  because  He  hath  anointed  Me  to  preach  good 
tidings  to  the  poor ;  He  hath  sent  Me  to  proclaim 
liberty  to  the  captives,  and  recovering  of  sight  to  the 
blind,  and  the  opening  of  the  prison  to  them  that  are 
bound.' 

Yes,  in  Christ  alone  there  is  dehverance  from  the 
bondage  of  former  transgressions,  from  the  prison- 
house  of  former  sins ;  a  total  cancelling  of  the  past  ; 
a  complete  blotting-out  of  the  handwriting  that  is 
against  us;  an  entire  washing  away  of  every  guilty 
stain ;  the  opening  of  a  clear  course  for  every  man 
to  start  afresh;  the  free  gift  of  pardon  and  of  life 
to  every  criminal,  to  every  sinner — even  the  most 
heinous  and  inveterate. 

Still,  I    seem  to  hear  some  admirers  of  Buddhism 


^  See  Dhamma-pada,  127. 

2  I  have  not  followed  the  exact  words  in  our  authorized  translation 
of  St.  Lukeiv.  18,  because  they  must  be  taken  with  Isaiali. 


550      BUDDHISM    CONTRASTED    WITH    CHRISTIANITY. 

say :  We  admit  the  force  of  these  contrasts,  but  surely 
you  will  allow  that  in  the  moral  law  of  Buddha  we 
find  precepts  identically  the  same  as  those  of  Chris- 
tianity— precepts  which  tell  a  man  not  to  love  the 
world,  not  to  love  money,  not  to  hate  his  enemies, 
not  to  do  unrighteous  acts,  not  to  commit  impurities, 
to  overcome  evil  by  good,  and  to  do  to  others  as  we 
would  be  done  by  ■? 

Well,  I  admit  all  this.  Nay,  I  admit  even  more 
than  this  ;  for  many  Buddhist  precepts  command  total 
abstinence  in  cases  where  Christianity  demands  only 
temperance  and  moderation.  The  great  contrast,  as 
I  have  already  explained,  between  the  moral  precepts 
of  Buddhism  and  Christianity,  is  not  so  much  in  the 
letter  of  the  precepts,  as  in  the  power  brought  to 
bear  in  their  application. 

Buddhism,  I  repeat,  says :  Act  righteously  through 
vour  own  efforts,  and  for  the  final  o-ettina:  rid  of  all  suffer- 
ing,  of  all  individuality,  of  all  life  in  yourselves.  Chris- 
tianity says  :  Be  righteous  through  a  power  implanted  in 
you  from  above,  through  the  power  of  a  life-giving  prin- 
ciple, freely  given  to  you,  and  always  abiding  in  you. 
The  Buddha  said  to  his  followers :  '  Take  nothing  from 
me,  trust  to  yourselves  alone.'  Christ  said  :  '  Take  all 
from  Me ;  trust  not  to  yourselves.  I  give  unto  you 
eternal  life,  I  give  unto  you  the  bread  of  heaven,  I 
give  unto  you  living  water.'  Not  that  these  priceless 
gifts  involve  any  passive  condition  of  inaction.  On  the 
contrary,  they  stir  the  soul  of  the  recipient  with  a 
living  energy.  They  stimulate  him  to  noble  deeds, 
and  self-sacrificing  efforts.     They  compel  him  to  act  as 


BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED   WITH    CHRISTIANITY.       551 

the  worthy,  grateful,  and  appreciative  possessor  of  so 
inestimable  a  treasure. 

Still,  I  seem  to  hear  some  one  say :  We  acknowledge 
this ;  we  admit  the  trutli  of  what  you  have  stated ; 
nevertheless,  for  all  that,  you  must  allow  that  Buddhism 
conferred  a  great  benefit  on  India  by  encouraging  free- 
dom of  thought  and  by  setting  at  liberty  its  teeming 
population,  before  entangled  in  the  meshes  of  cere- 
monial observances  and  Brahmanical  priestcraft. 

Yes,  I  grant  this  ;  nay,  I  grant  even  more  than  this. 
I  admit  that  Buddhism  conferred  many  other  benefits 
on  the  millions  inhabiting  the  most  populous  part  of 
Asia.  It  introduced  education  and  culture  ;  it  encou- 
raged literature  and  art ;  it  promoted  physical,  moral, 
and  intellectual  progress  up  to  a  certain  point ;  it  pro- 
claimed peace,  good  will,  and  brotherhood  among  men ; 
it  deprecated  war  between  nation  and  nation  ;  it  avowed 
sympathy  with  social  liberty  and  freedom ;  it  gave 
back  much  independence  to  women  ;  it  preached  purity 
in  thought,  word,  and  deed  (though  only  for  the  accu- 
mulation of  merit) ;  it  taught  self-denial  without  self- 
torture;  it  inculcated  generosity,  charity,  tolerance, 
love,  self-sacrifice,  and  benevolence,  even  towards  the 
inferior  animals ;  it  advocated  respect  for  life  and  com- 
passion towards  all  creatures;  it  forbade  avarice  and 
the  hoarding  of  money  ;  and  from  its  declaration  that  a 
man's  future  depended  on  his  present  acts  and  con- 
dition, it  did  good  service  for  a  time  in  preventing 
stagnation,  stimulating  exertion,  promoting  good  works 
of  all  kinds,  and  elevating  the  character  of  humanity. 
Then  again,  when  it  spread  to  outlying  countries  it 


552       BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED   WITH    CHRISTIANITY. 

assumed  the  character  of  a  religion ;  it  taught  the 
existence  of  unseen  worlds  ;  it  permitted  the  offering 
of  prayers  to  Maitreya  and  other  supposed  personal 
saviours ;  it  inculcated  ftiith  and  trust  in  these  celestial 
beings,  wliicli  operated  as  good  motives  in  the  hearts  of 
many,  while  the  hope  of  being  born  in  higher  conditions 
of  life,  and  the  desire  to  acquire  merit  by  reverential 
acts,  led  to  the  development  of  devotional  services, 
whicli  liad  much  in  common  with  those  performed  in 
Christian  countries.  Nay,  it  must  even  be  admitted 
that  many  Buddhists  in  the  present  day  are  deeply 
imbued  with  religious  feelings,  and  in  no  part  of  the 
world  are  the  outward  manifestations  of  religion — such 
as  temples  and  sacred  objects  of  all  kinds — so  con- 
spicuous as  in  modern  Buddhist  countries. 

But  if,  after  making  all  these  concessions,  I  am  told 
that,  on  my  own  showing,  Buddhism  was  a  kind  of 
introduction  to  Christianity,  or  that  Christianity  is 
a  kind  of  development  of  Buddhism,  I  nuist  ask  you 
to  boar  with  me  a  little  longer,  while  I  point  out 
certain  other  contrasts,  which  ought  to  make  it  clear 
to  every  reasonable  man,  how  vast,  how  profound,  how 
impassable  is  the  gulf  sej^arating  the  true  religion  from 
the  false  philosophy,  and  from  the  later  religious 
systems  developed  out  of  it. 

And  first,  observe  that  Buddhism  has  never  claimed 
to  be  an  exclusive  system.  It  has  never  aimed  at 
taking  the  place  of  other  religions.  On  the  contrary 
it  tolerates  all,  and  a  Buddhist  considers  that  he  may 
be  at  the  same  time  a  Hindu,  a  Confucianist,  a  Taoist, 
a  Shintoist,  and  even,  strange  to  say,  a  Christian. 


BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED   WITH   CIIEISTIANITY.       553 

A  Christian,  on  the  other  hand,  holds  as  a  cardinal 
doctrine  of  his  religion,  that  there  is  only  one  Name 
under  heaven  given  among  men,  whereby  any  human 
being  can  be  saved.  To  be  at  the  same  time  a  be- 
liever in  Christ  and  a  believer  in  Buddha  implies  an 
utter  contradiction  in  terms. 

Then  it  need  scarcely  be  repeated  here  that  Christ 
is  before  all  things  a  majestic  example  of  a  great 
historic  personality.'  Any  really  historical,  matter- 
of-fact  account  of  the  life  of  Buddha,  like  that  of  the 
life  of  Christ  by  the  four  Evangelists,  may  be  looked 
for  in  vain  through  all  the  Buddhist  scriptures.  The 
Buddha's  biography  is  mixed  up  with  such  monstrous 
legends,  absurd  figments,  and  extravagant  fables,  that 
to  attempt  the  sifting  out  of  any  really  historical 
element  worthy  of  being  compared  with  tlie  pregnant 
simplicity — the  dignified  brevity  of  the  biography  of 
Christ,  would  be  an  idle  task. 

Still  we  may  note  two  or  three  obvious  p(jints  of 
comparison  and  contrast. 

And  perhaps  the  most  important  is,  that  Christ 
constantly  insisted  on  the  fact  that  He  was  God-sent, 
whereas  the  Buddha  always  described  himself  as  self 
sent.  How  indeed  could  the  Buddha  have  said  'the 
great  I  AM  hath  sent  me  unto  you  ^ '  when  he  had 
no  belief  in  the  eternal  existence  of  any  Ego  at  all  ? 
Not  even  in  the  reality  of  his  own  individuality. 

All  that  he  affirmed  of  himself  was  that  he  came 
into  the  world  to  be  a  teacher  of  perfect  wisdom,  by 

1  Extdus  iii.  14. 


554      BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED    WITH    CHRISTIANITY. 

a  force  derived  from  his  own  acts.  By  that  force  alone 
he  had  passed  through  innunaerable  bodies  of  gods, 
demi-gods,  demons,  men,  and  animals,  until  he  reached 
one  out  of  numerous  heavens,  and  thence  by  his  own 
will  descended  upon  earth  and  entered  the  side  of  his 
mother  in  the  form  of  a  white  elephant  (see  pp.  23, 
477).  Let  those  who  speak  of  his  '  virgin-mother'  bear 
this  in  mind. 

Christ,  on  tlie  other  hand,  made  known  to  his  dis- 
ciples, that  He  was  with  His  Father  from  everlasting, 
'  Before  Abraham  was,  I  am.'  Then  in  the  fulness 
of  time.  He  was  sent  into  the  world  by  His  Father,  and 
was  born  of  a  pure  virgin,  through  the  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  in  the  likeness  and  fashion  of  men. 

Next  let  us  note  a  vast  contrast  in  the  fact  that 
Christ  was  sent  from  heaven  to  be  born  on  earth 
in  a  poor  and  humble  station,  to  be  reared  in  a  cottage, 
to  be  trained  to  toilsome  labour  as  a  working-man  ; 
whereas  the  Buddha  came  down  to  be  born  on  earth 
in  a  rich  and  princely  family ;  to  be  brought  up  amid 
luxurious  surroundings,  and  finally  to  go  forth  as  a 
mendicant-monk,  depending  upon  others  for  his  daily 
food  and  doing  nothing  for  his  own  support. 

Then,  again,  Christ  as  He  grew  up  showed  no  signs 
of  earthly  majesty  in  his  external  form,  whereas  the 
Buddha  is  described  as  marked  with  certain  mystic 
symbols  of  universal  monarchy  on  his  feet  and  on  his 
hands,  and  taller  and  more  stately  in  frame  and  figure 
than  ordinary  human  beings  (see  pp.  476,  501). 

Then,  when  each  entered  on  his  ministry  as  a  teacher, 
Christ  was  desjDised  and  rejected  by  kings  and  princes, 


BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED    WITH   CHRISTIANITY.       555 

and  followed  by  poor  and  ignorant  fishermen,  by  com- 
mon people,  publicans,  and  sinners ;  Buddha  was 
honoured  by  kings  and  princes,  and  followed  by  rich 
men  and  learned  disciples. 

Then  Christ  had  all  the  treasures  of  knowledge 
hidden  in  Himself,  and  made  known  to  His  disciples 
that  He  was  Himself  the  Way,  and  the  Truth, — 
Himself  their  Wisdom,  E-ighteousness,  Sanctification, 
and  Kedemption.  Buddha  declared  that  all  enlighten- 
ment and  wisdom  were  to  be  attained  by  his  disciples, 
not  throuo-h  him,  but  throuo-h  themselves  and  their  own 
intuitions ;  and  that,  too,  only  after  long  and  painful 
discipline  in  countless  successive  bodily  existences. 

Then  in  regard  to  the  miracles  which  both  the  Bible 
and  the  Tripitaka  describe  as  attestations  of  the  truth 
of  the  teaching  of  each,  contrast  the  simple  and  dig- 
nified statement  that  '  the  blind  receive  their  sight,  the 
lame  walk,  tlie  lepers  are  cleansed,  the  deaf  hear,  the 
dead  are  raised  up,  and  the  poor  have  the  gospel 
preached  unto  them  \'  with  the  following  description 
of  the  Buddha's  miracles  in  the  Maha-vagga  (I.  20, 24)  - : 
'  At  the  command  of  the  Blessed  One  the  five  hundred 
pieces  of  fire-wood  could  not  be  split  and  were  split, 
the  fires  could  not  be  lit  up  and  were  lit  up,  could  not 
be  extinguished  and  were  extinguished.  Besides  he 
created  five  hundred  vessels  with  fire.  Thus  the 
number  of  these  miracles  amounts  to  three  thousand 

five  hundred.' 

Then,  although  each  made  use  of  missionary  agency, 


1  St.  Muttliew  xi.  5.  '  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  xiU.  133. 


556      BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED   WITH   CHRISTIANITY. 

the  one  sent  forth  his  liigh-born  learned  monks  as 
missionaries  to  the  world  at  the  commencement  of  his 
own  career,  giving  them  no  divine  commission ;  the 
other  waited  till  the  close  of  His  own  ministry,  and  then 
said  to  His  low-born,  unlearned  disciples, '  As  My  Father 
hath  sent  Me,  even  so  send  I  you'  (St,  John  xx.  21). 

Then,  when  we  come  to  compare  the  death  of  each, 
the  contrast  reaches  its  climax  ;  for  Christ  was  put  to 
death  violently  by  wicked  men,  and  died  in  agony  an 
atoning  death,  suffering  for  the  sins  of  the  world  at 
the  age  of  thirty-three,  leaving  behind  in  Jerusalem 
about  one  hundred  and  twenty  disciples  after  a  short 
ministry  of  three  years.  Y/hereas  the  Buddha  died 
peacefully  among  his  friends,  suffering  from  an  attack 
of  indigestion  at  the  age  of  eighty,  leaving  behind 
many  thousands  of  disciples  after  forty-five  years  of 
teaching  and  preaching. 

And  what  happened  after  the  death  of  each  ?  Christ, 
the  Holy  One,  saw  no  corruption,  but  rose  again  in 
His  present  glorified  body,  and  is  alive  for  evermore — 
nay,  has  life  in  Himself  ever  flowing  in  life-giving 
streams  towards  His  people.  The  Buddha  is  dead  and 
gone  for  ever ;  his  body,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
his  own  disciples,  was  burnt  more  than  400  years 
before  the  Advent  of  Christ,  and  its  ashes  w^ere  dis- 
tributed everywhere  as  relics. 

Even  according  to  the  Buddha's  own  declaration,  he 
now  lives  only  in  the  doctrine  which  he  left  behind 
him  for  the  guidance  of  his  followers. 

And  here  again,  in  regard  to  the  doctrine  left  behind 
by  each,  a  vast  distinction  is  to  be  noted.     For  the 


BUDDHISM   CONTEASTED   WITH   CHRISTIANITY.       557 

doctrine  delivered  by  Christ  to  His  disciples  is  to 
spread  by  degrees  everywhere  until  it  prevails  eternally. 
Whereas  the  doctrine  left  by  Buddha,  though  it  ad- 
vanced rapidly  by  leaps  and  bounds,  is,  according  to 
his  own  admission,  to  fade  away  by  degrees,  till  at 
the  end  of  5000  years  it  has  disappeared  altogether 
from  the  earth,  and  another  Buddha  must  descend  to  re- 
store it.    (Compare  Postscript  at  end  of  Preface,  p.  xiv.) 

Then  that  other  Buddha  must  be  followed  by  count- 
less succeeding  Buddhas  in  succeeding  ages,  whereas 
there  is  only  one  Christ,  who  can  have  no  successor, 
for  He  is  alive  for  ever  and  for  ever  present  with  His 
people :  '  Lo,  I  am  with  you  alway,  even  unto  the  end 
of  the  world.' 

Then  observe  that,  although  the  Buddha's  doctrine 
was  "ultimately  written  down  by  his  disciples  in  certain 
collections  of  books,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  doc- 
trine of  Christ,  a  fundamental  difference  of  character — 
nay,  a  vast  and  impassable  gulf  of  difference —  separates 
the  Sacred  Books  of  each,  the  Bible  of  the  Christian 
and  the  Bible  of  the  Buddhist. 

The  characteristic  of  the  Christian's  Bible  is  that 
it  claims  to  be  a  supernatural  revelation,  yet  it  at- 
taches no  mystical  tahsmanic  virtue  to  the  mere 
sound  of  its  words.  On  the  other  hand,  the  character- 
istic of  the  Buddhist  Bible  is  that  it  utterly  repudiates 
all  claim  to  be  a  supernatural  revelation  ;  yet  the  very 
sound  of  its  words  is  believed  to  possess  a  meritorious 
efficacy  capable  of  elevating  any  one  who  hears  it  to 
heavenly  abodes  in  future  existences.  In  illustration 
I  may  advert  to  a  legend  current  in  Ceylon,  that  once 


558      BUDDHISM    CONTRASTED   WITH    CHRISTIANITY. 

on  a  time  500  bats  lived  in  a  cave  where  two  monks 
daily  recited  the  Buddha's  Law.  These  bats  gained 
such  merit  by  simply  hearing  the  sound  of  the  words, 
that,  when  they  died,  they  were  all  re-born  as  men,  and 
ultimately  as  gods. 

Then  as  to  the  words  themselves,  contrast  the 
severely  simple  and  dignified  style  of  the  Bible  narra- 
tive, its  brevity,  perspicuity,  vigour,  and  sublimity,  its 
trueness  to  nature  and  inimitable  pathos,  with  the  feeble 
utterances,  the  tedious  diffuseness,  and  I  might  almost 
say  'the  inane  twaddle'  and  childish  repetitions  of  the 
greater  portion  of  the  Tripitaka  (see  note  2,  p.  541).       ^ 

But  again,  I  am  sure  to  hear  the  admirers  of  Bud- 
dhism say :  Is  it  not  the  case  that  the  doctrine  of 
Buddha,  like  the  doctrine  of  Christ,  has  self-sacrifice  as 
its  key-note  ?  Well,  be  it  so.  I  admit  that  the  Buddha 
taught  a  kind  of  self-sacrifice.  I  admit  that  he  related 
of  himself  that,  on  a  particular  occasion  in  one  of  his 
previous  births  \  he  plucked  out  his  own  eyes,  and, 
that  on  another,  he  cut  off  his  own  head  as  a  sacrifice 
for  the  good  of  others  ;  and  that  again,  on  a  third 
occasion,  he  cut  his  own  body  to  pieces  to  redeem  a 
dove  from  a  hawk  2.  Yet  note  the  vast  distinction 
between  the  self-sacrifice  taught  by  the  tv/o  systems. 
Christianity  demands  the  suppression  of  selfishness  ; 
Buddhism  demands  the  suppression  of  self,  with  the 
one  object  of  extinguishing  all  consciousness  of  self    In 

^  It  is  necessary  to  point  out  that  these  acts  of  self-sacrifice  took 
place  in  former  states  of  existence,  for  when  a  man  becomes  a  Buddha 
he  has  no  need  to  gain  merit  by  self-sacrifice. 

*  See  p.  130. 


BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED   WITH   CHRISTIANITY.       559 

the  one,  the  true  self  is  elevated  and  intensified.  In 
the  other,  the  true  self  is  annihilated  by  the  practice 
of  a  false  form  of  non-selfishness,  which  has  for  its  real 
object,  not  the  good  of  others,  but  the  annihilation  of 
the  Ego,  the  utter  extinction  of  the  illusion  of  personal 
individuality. 

Furthermore,  observe  the  following  contrasts  in  the 
doctrines  which  each  bequeathed  to  his  followers  : — 

Accordirjg  to  Christianity  : — Fight  and  overcome  the 
world. 

According  to  Buddhism  : — Shun  the  world,  and  with- 
draw from  it. 

According  to  Christianity : — Expect  a  new  earth  when 
the  present  earth  is  destroyed ;  a  world  renewed  and 
perfected ;  a  purified  world  in  which  righteousness  is 
to  dwell  for  ever. 

According  to  Buddhism  : — Expect  a  never-ending  suc- 
cession of  evil  worlds  for  ever  cominsf  into  existence, 
developing,  decaying,  perishing,  and  reviving,  and  all 
equally  full  of  everlasting  misery,  disappointment,  illu- 
sion, change,  and  transmutation. 

According  to  Christianity,  bodily  existence  is  sub- 
ject to  only  one  transformation. 

Accordinp;  to  Buddhism,  bodilv  existence  is  con- 
tinned  in  six  conditions,  through  countless  bodies  of 
men,  animals,  demons,  ghosts,  and  dwellers  in  various 
hells  and  heavens ;  and  that,  too,  without  any  progressive 
development,  but  in  a  constant  jumble  of  metamor- 
phoses and  transmutations  (see  p.  122). 

Christianity  teaches  that  a  life  in  heaven  can  never 
be  followed  by  a  fall  to  a  lower  state. 


560      BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED    WITH    CHRISTIANITY. 

Buddliism  teaches  that  a  life  in  a  higher  heaven  may 
he  succeeded  by  a  life  in  a  lower  heaven,  or  even  by 
a  life  on  earth  or  in  one  of  the  hells. 

According  to  Christianity,  the  body  of  man  may  be 
the  abode  of  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God. 

According  to  Buddhism,  the  body  whether  of  men  or 
of  higher  beings  can  never  be  the  abode  of  anything 
but  evil. 

According  to  Christianity: — Present  your  bodies  as 
living  sacrifices,  holy,  acceptable  to  God,  and  expect 
a  change  to  glorified  bodies  hereafter. 

Accordino;  to  Buddhism  : — Look  to  final  deliverance 
from  all  bodily  life,  present  and  to  come,  as  the  greatest 
of  all  blessings,  highest  of  all  boons,  and  loftiest  of 
all  aims. 

According  to  Christianity,  a  man's  body  can  never  be 
changed  into  the  body  of  a  beast,  or  bird,  or  insect,  or 
loathsome  vermin. 

According  to  Buddhism,  a  man,  and  even  a  god,  may 
become  an  animal  of  any  kind,  and  even  the  most 
loathsome  vermin  may  again  become  a  man  or  a  god. 

According  to   Christianity: — Stray  not   from   God's 
ways  ;  offend  not  against  His  holy  laws. 
I     According  to  Buddhism  : — Stray  not  from  the  eight- 
fold path  of  the  perfect  man,  and  offend  not  against 
yourself  and  the  law  of  the  perfect  man. 

According  to  Christianity : — Work  the  works  of  God 
while  it  is  day. 

According  to  Buddhism  : — Beware  of  action,  as  caus- 
ing re-birth,  and  aim  at  inaction,  indifference,  and 
apathy,  as  the  highest  of  all  states. 


BUDDHISM    CONTRASTED    WITH    CHRISTIANITY.       56 1 

Then  note  other  contrasts. 

According  to  the  Christian  Bible  :— Kegulate  and 
sanctify  the  heart,  desires,  and  affections. 

According  to  the  Buddhist : — Suppress  and  destroy 
them  utterly,  if  you  wish  for  true  sanctification. 

Christianity  teaches  that  in  the  highest  form  of  life, 
love  is  intensified. 

Buddhism  teaches  that  in  the  higrhest  state  of  exist- 
ence,  all  love  is  extinguished. 

According  to  Christianity: — Go  and  earn  your  own 
bread,  support  yourself  and  your  family.  Marriage,  it 
says,  is  honourable  and  undefiled,  and  married  life  is 
a  field  on  which  holiness  may  grow  and  be  developed. 
Nav,  more — Christ  Himself  honoured  a  weddingr  with 
His  presence,  and  took  up  little  children  in  His  arms 
and  blessed  them. 

Buddhism,  on  the  other  hand,  says  : — Avoid  married 
life ;  shun  it  as  if  it  were  *  a  burning  pit  of  live  coals ' 
(p.  88);  or,  having  entered  on  it,  abandon  wife, 
children,  and  home,  and  go  about  as  celibate  monks, 
engaging  in  nothing  but  in  meditation  and  recitation 
of  the  Buddha's  Law — that  is  to  say — if  you  aim  at 
the  highest  degree  of  sanctification. 

And  then  comes  the  important  contrast  that  in 
the  one  system  we  have  a  teaching  gratifying  to  the 
pride  of  man,  and  flattering  to  his  intellect ;  while  in 
the  other  we  have  a  teaching  humbling  to  his  pride, 
and  distasteful  to  his  intellect.  For  Christianity  tells 
us  that  we  must  become  as  little  children,  and  that 
when,  we  have  done  all  that  we  can,  we  are  still  un- 
profitable servants.     Whereas  Buddhism  teaches  that 

o  o 


562       BUDDHISM    CONTRASTED    WITH    CHRISTIANITY. 

every  man  is  saved  by  his  own  works  and  by  his  own 
merits  only. 

Fitly,  indeed,  do  the  rags  worn  by  the  monks  of 
true  Buddhism  symbolize  the  miserable  patchwork  of 
its  own  self-righteousness. 

Not  that  Christianity  ignores  the  necessity  for  good 

works ;  on  the  contrary,  no  other  system  insists  on  a 

lofty  morality  so  strongly;  but  never  as  the  meritorious 

instrument   of  salvation^  —  only   as   a   thank-offering, 

\.    only  as  the  outcome  and  evidence  of  faith. 

Lastly,  we  must  advert  again  to  the  most  momentous 
— the  most  essential  of  all  the  distinctions  which 
separate  Christianity  from  Buddhism.  Christianity 
regards  personal  life  as  the  most  sacred  of  all  posses- 
■  sions.  Life,  it  seems  to  say,  is  no  dream,  no  illusion. 
'  Life  is  real,  life  is  earnest.'  Life  is  the  most  precious 
of  all  God's  gifts.  Nay,  it  affirms  of  God  Himself 
that  He  is  the  highest  Example  of  intense  Life — of 
intense  personality,  the  great  '  I  AM  that  I  AM,'  and 
teaches  us  that  we  are  to  thirst  for  a  continuance  of 
personal  life  as  a  gift  for  Him  ;  nay,  more,  that  we  are 
to  thirst  for  the  living  God  Himself  and  for  conformity 

'  A  Buddhist  writer  in  a  Buddhist  magazine,  published  in  Ceylon, 
has  lately  taken  me  to  task  for  asserting  in  a  recent  speech  that 
Christianity  denies  the  all-sufficiency  of  good  works  as  an  instrument 
of  salvation.  It  is  easy  to  quote  passages,  such  as  those  in  the  epistle 
of  St,  James,  in  suj^port  of  his  one-sided  view  of  this  question,  but  I 
need  scarcely  say  that  the  writer  has  much  to  learn  as  to  the  true 
character  of  our  Bible,  in  which  no  text  has  full  force  without  its 
context,  and  no  part  can  be  taken  to  establish  a  doctrine  without  a 
comparison  with  other  parts,  and  without  the  balancing  of  apparent 
contradictions  in  both  Old  and  New  Testaments. 


BUDDHISM   CONTRASTED   WITH   CHRISTIANITY.      56:; 

to  His  likeness ;  while  Buddhism  sets  forth  as  the 
highest  of  all  aims  the  utter  extinction  of  the  illusion 
of  personal  identity — the  utter  annihilation  of  the  Erjo 
— of  all  existence  in  any  form  whatever,  and  pro- 
claims as  the  only  true  creed  the  ultimate  resolution 
of  everything  into  nothing,  of  every  entity  into  pure 
nonentity. 

What  shall  I  do  to  inherit  eternal  life  ? — says  the 
Christian.  What  shall  I  do  to  inherit  eternal  extinc- 
tion of  life  1 — says  the  Buddhist. 

It  seems  a  mere  absurdity  to  have  to  ask  in  con- 
cluding these  Lectures  : — Whom  shall  we  choose  as  our 
Guide,  our  Hope,  our  Salvation,  '  the  Light  of  Asia,' 
or  '  the  Lio-ht  of  the  World  1 '  the  Buddha  or  the  Christ  I 
It  seems  a  mere  mockery  to  put  this  final  question 
to  rational  and  thoughtful  men  in  the  nineteenth 
century :  Which  Book  shall  we  clasp  to  our  hearts  in 
our  last  hour — the  Book  that  tells  us  of  the  dead,  the 
extinct,  the  death-giving  Buddha,  or  the  Book  that 
reveals  to  us  the  living,  the  eternal,  the  life-giving 
Christ  1 


POSTSCRIPT. 


Since  the  printing  of  my  concluding  Lecture,  it  has 
occurred  to  me  that  I  ought  to  make  a  few  remarks  in  re- 
gard to  a  very  prevalent  error— the  error  that  Buddhism 
still  numbers  more  adherents  than  any  other  religion  ot 
the  world.  For  these  remarks  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  Postscript  at  the  end  of  the  Preface  (p.  xiv). 

002 


WOBKS  BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR. 

Bmhimnum  and  Hinduism,  or  Relig-ious  Thought  and  Life  in 
India,  as  based  on  the  Veda  and  other  Sacred  Books  of  the  Hindus.  Third 
and  cheaper  Edition,  with  full  index.  John  Murray,  Albemarle  Street.  1887. 
los.  6d. 

Indian  Wisdom,  or  Examples  of  the  Religious,  Philosophical, 
and  Ethical  Doctrines  of  the  Hindus  :  with  a  brief  history  of  the  chief  depart- 
ments of  Sanskrit  Literature,  and  some  account  of  the  past  and  present  con- 
dition of  India,  Moral  and  Intellectual. 

Modern  India  and  the  Indians :   A  Series  of  Impressions,  Notes, 

and  Essays.   Fourth  Edition,  with  index.    Trubner  &  Co.,  Ludgate  Hill.   1888. 

Hinduism.  Published  by  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge. 

Sanskrit-English  Dictionary.     Published  at  the  University  Press, 

Oxford.     Henry  Frowde,  7  Paternoster  Row.     1888. 

English-Sanskrit  Bictionary.     At  the  India  Office. 

Practical  Sanskrit  Grammar.  Fourth  Edition.  At  the  Uni- 
versity Press,  Oxford.    Henry  Frowde,  7  Paternoster  Eow.     1877. 

Sanskrit  Manual  with  Exercises.     W.  H.  Allen  &  Co. 

Sahmtald.  A  Sanskrit  Drama,  in  Seven  Acts ;  the  Text,  with 
critical  and  explanatory  notes  and  literal  English  translations.  Second 
Edition.  At  the  University  Press,  Oxford.  Henry  Frowde,  7  Paternoster 
Row.     1S76.     8vo.  cloth,  215. 

Vikramorvasl.  A  Sanskrit  Drama.  The  Text.  Stephen  Austin, 
Hertford. 

A  Free  Translation   in  English  Prose  and  Verse  of  the  Sanskrit 

Drama  Sakoontala,  with  a  portrait  of  the  heroine  and  her  two  friends.  Fifth 
Edition.  John  Murray,  Albemarle  Street.  1887.  7s.  6d.  First  Edition 
printed  on  fine  paper,  illuminated  and  illustrated  by  Stephen  Austin,  Hertford. 

Story  of  Nala :  A  Sanskrit  Poem,  with  full  Vocabulary  and  an 
improved  version  of  Dean  Milman's  Translation.  University  Press,  Oxford, 
and  7  Paternoster  Row. 

Application  of  the  Poman  Alphabet  to  the  Languages  of  India. 
Longmans. 

Practical  Hindustani  Grammar.     Longmans. 

Bdgh  0  Bahdr.  The  Hindi'istfini  Text  in  the  Roman  character. 
Longmans. 


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